Royal Cemetery At Ur
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The Royal Cemetery at Ur is an archaeological site in modern-day
Dhi Qar Governorate Dhi Qar Governorate (, ) is a governorate in southern Iraq, in the Arabian Peninsula. The provincial capital is Nasiriyah. Prior to 1976 the governorate was known as Muntafiq Governorate. Thi Qar was the heartland of the ancient Iraqi civilizatio ...
in southern
Iraq Iraq, officially the Republic of Iraq, is a country in West Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to Iraq–Saudi Arabia border, the south, Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq border, the east, the Persian Gulf and ...
. The initial excavations at Ur took place between 1922 and 1934 under the direction of
Leonard Woolley Sir Charles Leonard Woolley (17 April 1880 – 20 February 1960) was a British archaeologist best known for his Excavation (archaeology), excavations at Ur in Mesopotamia. He is recognized as one of the first "modern" archaeologists who excavat ...
in association with the
British Museum The British Museum is a Museum, public museum dedicated to human history, art and culture located in the Bloomsbury area of London. Its permanent collection of eight million works is the largest in the world. It documents the story of human cu ...
and the
University of Pennsylvania The University of Pennsylvania (Penn or UPenn) is a Private university, private Ivy League research university in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. One of nine colonial colleges, it was chartered in 1755 through the efforts of f ...
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology in
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Philadelphia ( ), colloquially referred to as Philly, is the List of municipalities in Pennsylvania, most populous city in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania and the List of United States cities by population, sixth-most populous city in the Unit ...
, United States. Many finds are now in museums, especially the
Iraq Museum The Iraq Museum () is the national museum of Iraq, located in Baghdad. It is sometimes informally called the National Museum of Iraq. The Iraq Museum contains precious relics from the Mesopotamian, Abbasid, and Persian civilizations. It was loo ...
, Baghdad and the British Museum.


Discovery

The process was begun in 1922 by digging trial trenches, in order for the archaeologists to get an idea of the layout of the ancient city that would be documented in drawings by Katharine Woolley. In one trench where initially nothing was discovered, head archaeologist
Leonard Woolley Sir Charles Leonard Woolley (17 April 1880 – 20 February 1960) was a British archaeologist best known for his Excavation (archaeology), excavations at Ur in Mesopotamia. He is recognized as one of the first "modern" archaeologists who excavat ...
decided to dig deeper. There, clay vases, limestone bowls, small bronze objects, and assorted beads were found. Woolley thought that there may have been gold beads and, to entice the workers to turn them in when found, Woolley offered a sum of money—this led to the discovery of the gold beads after the workers repurchased them from the goldsmiths they sold them to. Dishonesty of the workers was an issue, but not only in the preliminary digs. The locals hired to help had no previous experience in archaeology, leading Woolley to abandon what they referred to as the "gold trench" for four years, until the workers became better versed in archaeological digs. In addition, archaeology was still in the beginning stages as a field. As a result, gold objects were identified by an expert who dated them incorrectly to the "Late Babylonian" (), when in fact they dated back to the reign of Sargon I (). The cemetery at Ur included slightly more than 2000 burials. Amongst these burials were sixteen tombs identified by Woolley as "royal" tombs based on their size and structure, variety and richness of grave goods, as well as the existence of artifacts associated with mass ritual.


The site

The ruins of the ancient city of Ur can be found in the desert of southern Iraq. The city remained abandoned after the
Euphrates River The Euphrates ( ; see below) is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of West Asia. Together with the Tigris, it is one of the two defining rivers of Mesopotamia (). Originating in Turkey, the Euphrates flows through S ...
changed its course more than two millennia ago. Early archaeologists dug into the surface and recovered graves, some of which had royal names inscribed on them. Woolley began his excavation in 1922 on behalf of the
British Museum The British Museum is a Museum, public museum dedicated to human history, art and culture located in the Bloomsbury area of London. Its permanent collection of eight million works is the largest in the world. It documents the story of human cu ...
and the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. However, the actual discovery of the cemetery and its royal tombs was four years later after the excavation started. The large cemetery was in operation for at least three centuries during the second half of the third millennium BC. Most of the graves were individual burials that had cut into one another. Male and female corpses were found with their belongings that identified them as either rich or poor.Reade, Julian. "The Royal Tombs of Ur." I
''Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus''
edited by Joan Aruz and Ronald Wallenfels New York and New Haven: Metropolitan Museum of New York and Yale University Press, 2003. 93-94,96.
Woolley initially unearthed 1850 graves but later identified 260 additional ones.Baadsgaard, Aubrey, Monge, Janet, Cox, Samantha, and Zettler, Richard L. "Human Sacrifice and Intentional Corpse Preservation in the Royal Cemetery of Ur." ''Antiquity 85'', no. 327 (2011): 27-42. Nevertheless, sixteen were unique to him, because they stood out from all the rest in terms of their wealth, the structure of their burial grounds, and rituals. He thought that the stone-built chambers and the immense value of riches belonged to the dead that came from royal lineage. Such cadavers inside their respective stone chambers were the only ones to have abundant provisions in order to meet their needs in the afterlife. Having that said, the subordinates were not treated in the same manner and had nothing of the aforementioned goods. They were treated in the same manner as other provisions and supplies, because the funeral was solely for the principal corpse. When the main body was buried, the rest of the people would have been sacrificed in that person's honor and buried thereafter.Woolley, Leonard. ''Ur Excavations''. vol. 2. ''The Royal Cemetery''. (London: Publications of the Joint Expedition of the British Museum and of the Museum of the University of Pennsylvania to Mesopotamia, 1934). 33, 37-38. When Woolley found the Great Death Pit (PG 1237), it was in extremely poor condition. What remained of the chamber were a few stones and some gold, lapis lazuli, and carnelian beads in fine condition. The Great Death Pit was an open square-shaped space, serving as the graveyard for the bodies of armed men that were laid out inside along with other corpses thought to belong to women or young girls. The introduction of massive death pits at Ur is usually associated to Meskalamdug, one of the kings of Ur that was also known as the paramount ruler of all the
Sumer Sumer () is the earliest known civilization, located in the historical region of southern Mesopotamia (now south-central Iraq), emerging during the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age, early Bronze Ages between the sixth and fifth millennium BC. ...
ians. He started the practice of such a massive entombment with the sacrifice of soldiers and an entire choir of women to accompany him in the afterlife. It has also been suggested that the Great Death Pit was the tomb of
Mesannepada Mesannepada (, ES-AN-NE2-PAD3-DA, Mesh-Ane-pada or Mes-Anne-pada ("Youngling chosen by An"; died ) was the first king listed for the First Dynasty of Ur on the Sumerian king list. He is listed to have ruled for 80 years, having overthrown Lu ...
.


Puabi

In contrast to the Great Death Pit, one of the royal tombs at Ur survived practically in its entirety, which was most notably due to its treasures left largely unscathed on the body of royal lineage. Such a body belonged to Queen
Puabi Puabi ( Akkadian: 𒅤𒀜 pu3-AD ), also called Shubad or Shudi-Ad due to a misinterpretation by Sir Charles Woolley, was an important queen in the Sumerian city of Ur, during the First Dynasty of Ur. Commonly labeled as a "queen", her stat ...
and was easy to identify due to her jewelry made out of beads of gold, silver, lapis lazuli, carnelian, and agate. Nevertheless, the biggest clues that denoted her title as queen was a cylinder seal with her name on the inscription and her crown, which was made out of layers of gold ornaments shaped in intricate floral patterns. Once more, Woolley uncovered an earth ramp leading down to the death pit of the well-preserved tomb, which was twelve by four meters approximately, and found a menagerie of corpses that ranged from armed men to women wearing headdresses with elaborate details. In his descent toward the pit, he found traces of reed matting, and they covered the artifacts and bodies in order to avoid contact with the soil that had filled the royal grave. Two meters below the level of the pit laid a tomb chamber built of stone that had no doorway in its walls, and its only accessible entrance was through its roof. Once inside, four bodies rested inside the tomb, but the most important one was evidently that of the queen.


Burial practices

The bodies at the Royal Cemetery underwent certain
burial Burial, also known as interment or inhumation, is a method of final disposition whereby a dead body is placed into the ground, sometimes with objects. This is usually accomplished by excavating a pit or trench, placing the deceased and objec ...
practices. In the tombs, the primary inhumation is placed inside the
tomb A tomb ( ''tumbos'') or sepulchre () is a repository for the remains of the dead. It is generally any structurally enclosed interment space or burial chamber, of varying sizes. Placing a corpse into a tomb can be called '' immurement'', alth ...
chamber usually accompanied by attendants. More bodies or victims are also buried, often in separate chambers or, more commonly, in 'death pits' - open, sunken courts. The amount of sacrificed bodies in one tomb can range from as few as six to between seventy and eighty bodies. The attendants are usually lying in neat rows within the death pits or chambers. It is not entirely known if the attendants died placed in that manner or were positioned after death. The principal body was always laid on a mat made of reeds which also lined the floor and walls of the pit where the attendants are located. In some tombs the bodies are arranged in very specific ways. Some tombs were found with male skeletons with helmets and spears positioned in front of the entrance as guards and then contained female attendants inside. It is not known for sure who the primary inhumations were but it is generally assumed that they are royalty. The occupants are possibly related either by blood or marriage. Additionally, there is little textual evidence available to explain the tombs at the cemetery and the practices of the people but it is thought that the burials of the royalty consisted of multi-day ceremonies. Some of the bodies have evidence of heating or smoking which could have been an attempt at preserving the bodies to last through the ceremony. Additionally mercury has been found on some skulls which could also indicate an attempt at preservation. Music, wailing, and feasting took place in addition to the burial with the possibility of the attendants joining in. In the first part of the ceremony the body was laid in the tomb, along with the offerings, and then sealed with brick and stone. In the next part of the ceremony the death pits were filled with guards, attendants, musicians, and animals, such as oxen or
donkey The donkey or ass is a domesticated equine. It derives from the African wild ass, ''Equus africanus'', and may be classified either as a subspecies thereof, ''Equus africanus asinus'', or as a separate species, ''Equus asinus''. It was domes ...
s. How the attendants ended up buried with the royalty is somewhat unknown. All of the bodies are arranged in an ordered fashion and appear peaceful. The elaborate headdresses worn by women are undisturbed which supports the assumption they were lying or sitting down when they died. Woolley thought initially that the attendants were
human sacrifice Human sacrifice is the act of killing one or more humans as part of a ritual, which is usually intended to please or appease deity, gods, a human ruler, public or jurisdictional demands for justice by capital punishment, an authoritative/prie ...
s and were killed to show the kings' power and put on a public show. Later he speculated that the attendants voluntarily consumed
poison A poison is any chemical substance that is harmful or lethal to living organisms. The term is used in a wide range of scientific fields and industries, where it is often specifically defined. It may also be applied colloquially or figurati ...
to continue serving their head in death. Each attendant was found with a small cup nearby which they could drink the poison from. The poison could have been a
sedative A sedative or tranquilliser is a substance that induces sedation by reducing irritability or Psychomotor agitation, excitement. They are central nervous system (CNS) Depressant, depressants and interact with brain activity, causing its decelera ...
with the cause of death being
suffocation Asphyxia or asphyxiation is a condition of deficient supply of oxygen to the body which arises from abnormal breathing. Asphyxia causes generalized hypoxia, which affects all the tissues and organs, some more rapidly than others. There are m ...
from having the chamber sealed. Some research has found that some of the skulls had received
blunt force trauma A blunt trauma, also known as a blunt force trauma or non-penetrating trauma, is a physical trauma due to a forceful impact without penetration of the body's surface. Blunt trauma stands in contrast with penetrating trauma, which occurs when an ...
indicating that, rather than voluntarily serving their superiors in death, they were forcibly killed.


Grave goods

The cemetery at Ur contained more than 2000 burials alongside a corresponding wealth of objects. Many items come from the handful of royal burials. Many of these grave goods were likely imported from various surrounding regions including
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,
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,
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and the
Indus valley The Indus ( ) is a transboundary river of Asia and a trans- Himalayan river of South and Central Asia. The river rises in mountain springs northeast of Mount Kailash in the Western Tibet region of China, flows northwest through the disp ...
. Objects of significance varied from cylinder seals, jewelry and metalwork, to pottery, musical instruments, and more.


Cylinder seals

Cylinder seals A cylinder seal is a small round cylinder, typically about one inch (2 to 3 cm) in width, engraved with written characters or figurative scenes or both, used in ancient times to roll an impression onto a two-dimensional surface, generally ...
found amongst the grave goods in the cemetery at Ur were often inscribed with the names of the deceased.Irving, Alexandra and Janet Ambers. "Hidden Treasure from the Royal Cemetery at Ur: Technology Sheds New Light on the Ancient Near East." Near Eastern Archaeology 65, no. 3 (September, 2002): 206-213. Excavators retrieved three cylinder seals near queen
Puabi Puabi ( Akkadian: 𒅤𒀜 pu3-AD ), also called Shubad or Shudi-Ad due to a misinterpretation by Sir Charles Woolley, was an important queen in the Sumerian city of Ur, during the First Dynasty of Ur. Commonly labeled as a "queen", her stat ...
's remains, one with her name written in cuneiform.Kliener, Fred S. Gardner's Art Through the Ages, 14th Edition.


Jewelry and metalwork

The various female personages and attendants buried at the cemetery of Ur were adorned with jewelry made from gold, silver, lapis lazuli and carnelian including a variety of necklaces, earrings, headdresses, and hair rings. The presence of carnelian beads amongst the grave goods at the cemetery indicated trade with the Indus Valley. Hair ornaments included hair combs with floral elements made of gold, lapis, shell, and pink limestone. In addition, hair ribbons of gold and silver and inlaid combs with rosettes were also found amongst the human remains at Ur. Many of the jewels contained some sort of botanical reference. Amongst them are vegetal wreaths fashioned with gold leaves. Notably, Puabi's headdress consists of four botanical wreaths including rosettes or stars and leaves. Other precious metals were found in the form of helmets, daggers, and various vessels in copper, silver, and gold. A gold helmet, whose ownership is attributed to Meskalamdug was found in a grave that Woolley believed to be an elite, but not necessarily a king. The helmet was made from a single piece of gold and fashioned to resemble a wig.Woolley, Leonard C. "Excavations at Ur." Journal of the Royal Society of Arts 82, no. 4227 (November 24, 1933): 46-59. The presence of fully developed casting practices is assumed from the discovery of another weapon made from electrum. At the same time, another weapon, referred to as the "Dagger of Ur," was, according to Woolley, the first significant grave good discovered at Ur. The sheath and blade are both made from gold with a handle of lapis lazuli with gold decoration. Other examples of metal work include a variety of golden goblets and vessels made with handles of twisted wire. Some of these vessels included relief decoration or patterning. Hammered work in various metals was also discovered. This included a shield ornament containing an Assyrian style subject of lions and men being trampled. Other objects included a silver fluted bowl with engravings and a silver model of a sea faring vessel.


Pottery

The pottery types at Ur included mostly jar forms and bowls with limited variety in style. Conical bowls, as recorded by the excavators, fall into two categorical types based on their rim diameters. Woolley identified 24 different pottery types at the Royal Cemetery based on the excavation of 238 graves. In order to date the pottery and burials at Ur, some scholars have looked to the pottery to compare to similar types from other sites in Mesopotamia and then checked using cylinder seals.


Musical instruments

Amongst the finds at Ur were the remains of highly decorated musical instruments. Several
lyre The lyre () (from Greek λύρα and Latin ''lyra)'' is a string instrument, stringed musical instrument that is classified by Hornbostel–Sachs as a member of the History of lute-family instruments, lute family of instruments. In organology, a ...
s were discovered in the main pit associated with four women. Most of these instruments were wooden with silver overlay alongside other details. One lyre's
sound box A sound box or sounding box (sometimes written soundbox) is an open chamber in the body of a musical instrument which modifies the sound of the instrument, and helps transfer that sound to the surrounding air. Objects respond more strongly to vibr ...
was made from silver with blue and white mosaic detail and engraved shell with pictorial engravings on the front created using a similar technique to
niello Niello is a black mixture, usually of sulphur, copper, silver, and lead, used as an inlay on engraved or etched metal, especially silver. It is added as a powder or paste, then fired until it melts or at least softens, and flows or is push ...
work. This particular lyre also included a silver cast cow's head and silver tuning rods. Another lyre was shaped like a seafaring vessel supporting the statue of a stag. Yet another lyre incorporated various materials including wood, shell, lapis lazuli, red stone, silver and gold. The lyres found at Ur often included the representation of animals including a cow, stag, bearded bull, and a calf. Of particular note is the Bull-headed lyre from PG 789, also referred to as the "King's Grave". Woolley theorized that each animal might have corresponded to the tone of the instrument itself.


Ram in a Thicket

The discovery of two goat statues in PG 1237 are just two examples of polychrome sculpture at Ur. These objects, referred to as "rams in the thicket" by Woolley, were made of wood and covered in gold, silver, shell and lapis lazuli. The
Ram in a Thicket The ''Ram in a Thicket'' is a pair of figures excavated at Ur, in southern Iraq, which date from about 2600–2400 BC. One is in the Mesopotamia Gallery in Room 56 of the British Museum in London; the other is in the University of Pennsylvania ...
uses gold for the tree, legs, and face of the goat, silver for the belly and parts of the base alongside pink and white mosaics. The back of the animal is constructed using shell attached with bitumen. Other details such as the eyes, horns, and beard are fashioned from lapis lazuli.


The Standard of Ur

Discovered in PG 779 was a, as yet, unidentified object referred to as the Standard of Ur. The Standard of Ur is a trapezoidal wooden box incorporating lapis lazuli, shell and red limestone into the depiction of various figures on its surface. Its function is debated, although Woolley believed it to be a military standard, explaining this object's current name. On each side of the standard, the pictorial elements are considered part of a narrative sequence divided formally into 3 registers with all figures on a common ground. The standard uses hierarchy of scale to identify important figures in the compositions. Read from left to right, bottom to top on one side of the standard, starting with the lowest registers, there are men carrying various goods or leading animals and fish towards the top register where larger seated figures take part in a feast accompanied by musicians and attendants. The other side depicts a more militaristic subject where men in horse-drawn chariots trample over prostrate bodies and soldiers and prisoners process up towards the top frieze where the central personage is designated by his large scale, punctuating the border of the upper most frieze.


Present day


New theories

Analyses of the findings of Sir Leonard Woolley have led to new theories concerning the royal tombs. In 1998, Paul Zimmerman wrote a master's thesis while at the
University of Pennsylvania The University of Pennsylvania (Penn or UPenn) is a Private university, private Ivy League research university in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. One of nine colonial colleges, it was chartered in 1755 through the efforts of f ...
on the Royal Cemetery at Ur. Graves PG789 and PG800, the king and queen's graves, according to Woolley, were complete burials with attendants and worldly possessions. Zimmerman analyzed the layout and formulated the hypothesis that the two tombs were in fact three. Pit PG800 had two rooms that were on two different levels, something that Zimmerman found inconsistent with grave PG789 (the rooms were connected). In addition, Woolley claimed that Puabi's grave was built after the king's in order to be close to him. Zimmerman posits that, because Puabi's grave was 40 cm lower than that of the king's, her grave was actually built first. With these in mind, Zimmerman claimed that the death pit assigned to Queen Puabi was actually a death pit from a different grave that is unknown.


State of the royal tombs

Looting Looting is the act of stealing, or the taking of goods by force, typically in the midst of a military, political, or other social crisis, such as war, natural disasters (where law and civil enforcement are temporarily ineffective), or rioting. ...
of archaeological sites was a common occurrence brought under control during the reign of
Saddam Hussein Saddam Hussein (28 April 1937 – 30 December 2006) was an Iraqi politician and revolutionary who served as the fifth president of Iraq from 1979 until Saddam Hussein statue destruction, his overthrow in 2003 during the 2003 invasion of Ira ...
, whose government declared the act a capital offense. Due to the
Iraq War The Iraq War (), also referred to as the Second Gulf War, was a prolonged conflict in Iraq lasting from 2003 to 2011. It began with 2003 invasion of Iraq, the invasion by a Multi-National Force – Iraq, United States-led coalition, which ...
, however, looting has occurred more frequently. Entire archaeological sites have been destroyed, with as many as tens of thousands of holes dug by looters. The "Royal Cemetery At Ur", however, has remained largely preserved. The site was located in the boundaries of the Tallil Air Base, controlled by allied forces. It was damaged during the first
Gulf War , combatant2 = , commander1 = , commander2 = , strength1 = Over 950,000 soldiers3,113 tanks1,800 aircraft2,200 artillery systems , page = https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GAOREPORTS-PEMD-96- ...
, when the air base was bombed. As a result, in 2008, a team of scholars, including Elizabeth Stone of
Stony Brook University Stony Brook University (SBU), officially the State University of New York at Stony Brook, is a public university, public research university in Stony Brook, New York, United States, on Long Island. Along with the University at Buffalo, it is on ...
, found that the walls of the royal tombs were beginning to collapse. Deterioration was also recorded in the team's findings, due to the occupation of the military. Neglect, however, was cited as most harmful to the site. Stone stated that for 30 years the "Iraq Department of Antiquities" lacked the resources to properly inspect and conserve the site, along with others that the team examined. As a result, sites like the Royal Cemetery at Ur have begun to erode. In May 2009, "Iraq's State Board of Antiquities" regained control of the site, helping with the conservation of the ancient site.


Graves

A vast number of individual graves, and a few royal graves have been identified at the Royal Cemetery of Ur. The attribution of the royal graves is generally tentative, but some efforts have been made to match them with royal figures otherwise known through inscriptions or regnal lists such as the
Sumerian King List The ''Sumerian King List'' (abbreviated ''SKL'') or ''Chronicle of the One Monarchy'' is an ancient Composition (language), literary composition written in Sumerian language, Sumerian that was likely created and redacted to legitimize the claims ...
. Julian Reade has tentatively attributed the main tombs to the following rulers:


PG 1236

Tomb PG 1236, a twin tomb in the Royal Cemetery at Ur, is the largest and probably the earliest tomb structure at the cemetery, dated to circa 2600 BCE. It has been tentatively attributed to an early king of the First Dynasty of Ur named A-Imdugud ( ADIM.DUGUDMUŠEN, named after God Imdugud, also read ''Aja-Anzu''), whose inscribed seal was found in the tomb. Several artefacts are known from tomb PG 1236. Two inscribed seals were found, one is a banquet scene with an inscription ''Gan-Ekiga(k)'', and another with the depiction of a nude hero fighting lions and a war scene reminiscent of the
Standard of Ur The Standard of Ur is a Sumerian Artifact (archaeology), artifact of the 3rd millennium BCE that is now in the collection of the British Museum. It comprises a hollow wooden box measuring wide by long, inlaid with a mosaic of shell, red limesto ...
, with the name ''Aja-Anzu'', also read ''A-Imdugud''. This seals is very similar to the seal of
Mesannepada Mesannepada (, ES-AN-NE2-PAD3-DA, Mesh-Ane-pada or Mes-Anne-pada ("Youngling chosen by An"; died ) was the first king listed for the First Dynasty of Ur on the Sumerian king list. He is listed to have ruled for 80 years, having overthrown Lu ...
. Gold leaves with embossed designs, as well as a reconstituted gold scepter, have also been found in the tomb, as well as a royal scepter. Artifacts from PG 1236 (scepter).jpg, Scepter, tomb PG 1236. File:Plan of tomb PG 1236, Royal Cemetery of Ur.jpg, Plan of tomb PG 1236, with three chambers, thought to belong to A-Imdugud. Royal Cemetery of Ur. File:Ur excavations (1900) (14765144594).jpg, Tomb PG 1236, at the Royal Cemetery of Ur. Doorway, and domed tomb chambers seen from above. Seal from PG 1236 with inscription Aja-Anzu, also read A-Imdugud.jpg, Seal from PG 1236 with inscription "Aja-Anzu", also read "A-Imdugud". Upper register: a nude hero fighting lions. Lower register: chariotter trampling an enemy, and foot soldiers escorting a naked prisoner. File:Banquet scene with an inscription Gan-Ekiga(k) PG 1236.jpg, Banquet scene with an inscription ''Gan-Ekiga(k)'', PG 1236. File:Embossed gold leaf Ur RT 122203.jpg, Gold foil, tomb PG 1236 Design embossed on gold leaf, PG 1236, Royal Cemetery of Ur.jpg, Design embossed on the gold foil, tomb PG 1236, thought to belong to A-Imdugud, Royal Cemetery of Ur.


PG 779

PG 779 is an early monumental grave, which has been associated with king Ur-Pabilsag (, ur-dpa-bil2-sag) an early ruler of the First Dynasty of Ur in the 26th century BCE. He does not appear in the ''
Sumerian King List The ''Sumerian King List'' (abbreviated ''SKL'') or ''Chronicle of the One Monarchy'' is an ancient Composition (language), literary composition written in Sumerian language, Sumerian that was likely created and redacted to legitimize the claims ...
'', but is known from an inscription fragment found in Ur, bearing the title "Ur-Pabilsag, king of Ur". It has been suggested that his tomb was grave PG 779. He may have died around 2550 BCE. The tomb of Ur-Pabilsag (Grave PG 779) is generally considered as the second oldest at the site, and probably contemporary with grave PG 777, thought to be the tomb of his queen. Meskalamdug (grave PG 755, or possibly PG 789) was his son. Several artefacts are known from tomb PG 779 at the Royal Cemetery at Ur, such as the famous
Standard of Ur The Standard of Ur is a Sumerian Artifact (archaeology), artifact of the 3rd millennium BCE that is now in the collection of the British Museum. It comprises a hollow wooden box measuring wide by long, inlaid with a mosaic of shell, red limesto ...
, and decorated shell plaques. File:Ur excavations (1900) (14767391765).jpg, Tomb of Ur-Pabilsag in the center (PG 779, marked "A"), with the tomb of Meskalamdug on the left (PG 755, marked "B"), next to the royal tomb of the queen of Ur-Pabilsag (PG 777, marked "C"). File:Grave 779 at the Royal Cemetery of Ur.jpg, Plan of grave PG 779. The
Standard of Ur The Standard of Ur is a Sumerian Artifact (archaeology), artifact of the 3rd millennium BCE that is now in the collection of the British Museum. It comprises a hollow wooden box measuring wide by long, inlaid with a mosaic of shell, red limesto ...
was located in "S" File:Ur excavations (1900) (14744430356).jpg, Grave PG 779, the tomb of Ur-Pabilsag. File:Denis Bourez - British Museum, London (8747049029) (2).jpg, The
Standard of Ur The Standard of Ur is a Sumerian Artifact (archaeology), artifact of the 3rd millennium BCE that is now in the collection of the British Museum. It comprises a hollow wooden box measuring wide by long, inlaid with a mosaic of shell, red limesto ...
, from tomb PG 779. File:Ur excavations (1900) (14580929038).jpg, Shell inlay from tomb PG 779 File:King at war leading soldiers Standard of Ur.jpg, King at war, with soldiers, from the
Standard of Ur The Standard of Ur is a Sumerian Artifact (archaeology), artifact of the 3rd millennium BCE that is now in the collection of the British Museum. It comprises a hollow wooden box measuring wide by long, inlaid with a mosaic of shell, red limesto ...
.


PG 755: "Prince Meskalamdug"

PG 755 is a small individual grave without attendants, generally attributed to king Meskalamdug (, MES-KALAM-DUG "hero of the good land") Alternatively, since the tomb lacks of royal characteristics, it has been suggested that it may belong to a prince, for example the son of Meskalamdug. The tomb contained numerous gold artifacts including a golden helmet with an inscription of the king's name."Behind the deceased's head was agold helmet. He held in his hands a gold bowl inscribed with the name Meskalamdug. In the coffin, for example, were gold and silver lamps, a second gold bowl inscribed with the name Meskalamdug, and electrum ax heads. On the northeast side opposite the upper part of the body was a substantial collection of jewelry" in By observing the contents of this royal grave, it is made clear that this ancient civilization was quite wealthy. Meskalamdug was probably the father of king
Mesannepada Mesannepada (, ES-AN-NE2-PAD3-DA, Mesh-Ane-pada or Mes-Anne-pada ("Youngling chosen by An"; died ) was the first king listed for the First Dynasty of Ur on the Sumerian king list. He is listed to have ruled for 80 years, having overthrown Lu ...
of Ur, who appears in the king list and in many other inscriptions. File:Grave of Meskalamdug.jpg, Grave of Meskalamdug (PG 755, "A") File:Grave of Meskalamdug (PG 755, B) at Ur, next to royal tomb PG 779 (A) and royal tomb PG 777 (C).jpg, Grave of Meskalamdug (PG 755, marked "B" on the left), next to royal tomb of Ur-Pabilsag (PG 779, marked "A" in the center) and tomb of Ur-Pabilsag's queen on the right (PG 777, "C") File:A gold dagger and a dagger with a gold-plated handle, Ur excavations (1900) (14581033499).jpg, A gold dagger and a dagger with a gold-plated handle, grave PG 755, Ur excavations (1900). File:Goods from grave PG 755.jpg,
Alabaster Alabaster is a mineral and a soft Rock (geology), rock used for carvings and as a source of plaster powder. Archaeologists, geologists, and the stone industry have different definitions for the word ''alabaster''. In archaeology, the term ''alab ...
vases and helmet from the grave of Meskalamdug, grave PG 755 File:Ur excavations (1900) (14767364572).jpg, Golden bowls found in the tomb of Meskalamdug (grave PG 755), with vertical inscription of his name , "Meskalamdug". File:Golden bowl from the grave of Meskalamdug (PG 755, Ur).jpg, Golden bowl from the grave of Meskalamdug (PG 755, Ur) File:Gold monkey of Meskalamdug (grave PG 755 at Ur).jpg, Gold monkey of Meskalamdug (grave PG 755 at Ur) File:Silver ewer and copper paten from the tomb of Meskalamdug from page 354 of "Ur excavations".jpg, Silver ewer and copper paten from the tomb of Meskalamdug.


Tomb PG 1054: "Queen of Meskalamdug"

This grave exhibits many characteristics of a royal burial. It is thought to belong to Nibanda, Queen of Meskalamdug. File:Ur excavations (1900) (14580766320).jpg, The grave File:Seal of King Meskalamdug.jpg, Seal of King Meskalamdug


Tomb PG 789: "the King's grave"

According to Julian Reade tomb PG 755 was the tomb of a "Prince Meskalamdug", but the actual tomb of King Meskalamdug, known from seal U 11751, is more likely to be royal tomb PG 789. This tomb has been called "the King's grave", where the remains of numerous royal attendants and many beautiful objects were recovered, and is located right next to the tomb of Queen
Puabi Puabi ( Akkadian: 𒅤𒀜 pu3-AD ), also called Shubad or Shudi-Ad due to a misinterpretation by Sir Charles Woolley, was an important queen in the Sumerian city of Ur, during the First Dynasty of Ur. Commonly labeled as a "queen", her stat ...
, thought to be the second wife of King Meskalamdug. File:Funeral procession at Ur, circa 2600 BCE (reconstitution).jpg, Funeral disposition in the great death pit, PG 789. The King's tomb would be the dome in the back (reconstitution). Ur excavations (1900) (14580798039).jpg, Plan of tomb PG 789. Bull-headed lyre recovered from the royal cemetery of Ur Iraq 2550-2450 BCE Gold Lapis Lazuli (2).jpg, Bull head in a lyre. Bull-headed lyre recovered from the royal cemetery of Ur Iraq 2550-2450 BCE Gold Lapis Lazuli.jpg, Bull-headed lyre recovered from the royal cemetery of Ur Iraq 2550-2450 BCE File:Lyre detail (Royal Cemetery of Ur).jpg, Nacre plate on lyre, with anthropomorphic animals, PG 789. File:SumerianBulls.jpg,
Master of animals The Master of Animals, Lord of Animals, or Mistress of the Animals is a motif in ancient art showing a human between and grasping two confronted animals. The motif is very widespread in the art of Mesopotamia. The figure may be female or male ...
motif in a panel of the soundboard of the Ur harp File:Ur excavations (1900) (14765338634).jpg, Plate from PG 789. File:Weapons from tomb PG 789.jpg, Weapons from tomb PG 789. File:Silver model of a boat, tomb PG 789, Royal Cemetery of UR, 2600-2500 BCE.jpg, Silver model of a boat, tomb PG 789, 2600-2500 BCE


Tomb PG 800: "Queen Puabi"

This is the tomb of Queen
Puabi Puabi ( Akkadian: 𒅤𒀜 pu3-AD ), also called Shubad or Shudi-Ad due to a misinterpretation by Sir Charles Woolley, was an important queen in the Sumerian city of Ur, during the First Dynasty of Ur. Commonly labeled as a "queen", her stat ...
, located next to tomb PG 789. She is thought to be the second wife of Meskalamdug. File:Ur excavations (1900) (14764273291).jpg, Tomb PG 800 File:Flickr - Nic's events - British Museum with Cory and Mary, 6 Sep 2007 - 185.jpg, Cylinder seal of Queen Puabi, found in her tomb. Inscription 𒅤𒀀𒉿 𒊩𒌆''Pu-A-Bi- Nin'' "Queen Puabi". File:Reconstructed sumerian headgear necklaces british museum.JPG, Reconstructed Sumerian headgear necklaces found in the tomb of Puabi, housed at the British Museum File:Queen's Lyre Ur Royal Cemetery.jpg, Queen's Lyre, one of the
Lyres of Ur Yoke lutes, commonly called lyres, are a class of string instruments, subfamily of lutes, indicated with the codes List of musical instruments by Hornbostel–Sachs number: 321.21, 321.21 and List of musical instruments by Hornbostel–Sachs number ...
, Ur Royal Cemetery. File:Inlay_of_two_standing_goats_BM_121529.jpg, Inlay with two standing goats, Ur, Tomb PG 800


Tomb 1237: "the Great Death Pit"

According to Julian Reade, tomb PG 1237, nicknamed "the Death-Pit", may possibly be attributed to king
Mesannepada Mesannepada (, ES-AN-NE2-PAD3-DA, Mesh-Ane-pada or Mes-Anne-pada ("Youngling chosen by An"; died ) was the first king listed for the First Dynasty of Ur on the Sumerian king list. He is listed to have ruled for 80 years, having overthrown Lu ...
. Ur excavations (1900) (14580870389).jpg, Disposition of royal attendants in tomb PG 1237 File:Raminathicket2.jpg,
Ram in a Thicket The ''Ram in a Thicket'' is a pair of figures excavated at Ur, in southern Iraq, which date from about 2600–2400 BC. One is in the Mesopotamia Gallery in Room 56 of the British Museum in London; the other is in the University of Pennsylvania ...
in PG 1237 File:Silver lyre, PG 1237, Royal Cemetery of Ur.jpg, Silver lyre, PG 1237 File:The golden bull's head from the lyre, Ur excavations (1900).jpg, The golden bull's head from the lyre, PG 1237 File:Woman's Head with Jewelry Preserved as Excavated.jpg, Woman's head with jewellery, preserved as excavated, British Museum


Tomb PG 580

Possible tomb of A'anepada, king, son of
Mesannepada Mesannepada (, ES-AN-NE2-PAD3-DA, Mesh-Ane-pada or Mes-Anne-pada ("Youngling chosen by An"; died ) was the first king listed for the First Dynasty of Ur on the Sumerian king list. He is listed to have ruled for 80 years, having overthrown Lu ...
. Gold items PG 580.jpg, Gold items PG 580. British Museum - Room 56 (20566120524).jpg, Dagger Copper alloy axe - Ur RT.jpg, Copper alloy axe Copper Alloy Chisel, Harpoons, Lance and Spear Heads.jpg, Copper Alloy Chisel, Harpoons, Lance and Spear Heads. Jewellery PG 580 - Ur RT.jpg, Jewellery PG 580 Jewellery PG 580 2 - Ur RT.jpg, Jewellery PG 580


Gallery

File:The gold lyre from the Great Death-Pit, Ur excavations (1900).jpg, The Ur Queen's Lyre from Wooley's published record Headdress MET DP226592 (cropped).jpg, Headdress decorated with golden leaves; 2600-2400 BC; gold, lapis lazuli and
carnelian Carnelian (also spelled cornelian) is a brownish-red mineral commonly used as a semiprecious stone. Similar to carnelian is sard, which is generally harder and darker; the difference is not rigidly defined, and the two names are often used int ...
; length: 38.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art File:Plaque_with_libation_scene_BM_120850.jpg, Plaque with a libation scene, found in loose ground around the graves. 2550-2250 BCE, Royal Cemetery at Ur.Found loose in soil at the cemetery File:Tomb of king 2.JPG, A tomb as restored as of 2007.


See also

*
Lagash Lagash (; cuneiform: LAGAŠKI; Sumerian language, Sumerian: ''Lagaš'') was an ancient city-state located northwest of the junction of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and east of Uruk, about east of the modern town of Al-Shatrah, Iraq. Lagash ( ...
*
Lyres of Ur Yoke lutes, commonly called lyres, are a class of string instruments, subfamily of lutes, indicated with the codes List of musical instruments by Hornbostel–Sachs number: 321.21, 321.21 and List of musical instruments by Hornbostel–Sachs number ...
* Music of Mesopotamia


References

{{Reflist


External links


Exploration of the Royal Tombs of Ur, with a comprehensive collection of high-resolution photographs of the treasures found in the tombs.
1922 archaeological discoveries Cemeteries in Iraq Ur Ur