Rotbav Bronze Age Site
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Rotbav "La Pârâuț", spelled La Pîrîuț until 1993, is a
Bronze Age The Bronze Age () was a historical period characterised principally by the use of bronze tools and the development of complex urban societies, as well as the adoption of writing in some areas. The Bronze Age is the middle principal period of ...
site in southeastern
Transylvania Transylvania ( or ; ; or ; Transylvanian Saxon dialect, Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjen'') is a List of historical regions of Central Europe, historical and cultural region in Central Europe, encompassing central Romania. To the east and ...
,
Romania Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern and Southeast Europe. It borders Ukraine to the north and east, Hungary to the west, Serbia to the southwest, Bulgaria to the south, Moldova to ...
, located at the southern border of the modern village of Rotbav, in
Feldioara Feldioara (, ; or ''Barcaföldvár'') is a commune in Brașov County, Transylvania, Romania, about north of the city of Brașov. It is composed of three villages: Colonia Reconstrucția (''Bohntelep''), Feldioara, and Rotbav (''Rothbach''; ''S ...
commune, and north of
Brașov Brașov (, , ; , also ''Brasau''; ; ; Transylvanian Saxon dialect, Transylvanian Saxon: ''Kruhnen'') is a city in Transylvania, Romania and the county seat (i.e. administrative centre) of Brașov County. According to the 2021 Romanian census, ...
, capital of the county by the same name. The settlement of Rotbav is situated upon a high terrace formation above the
Olt River The Olt ( Romanian and Hungarian; ; or ', , ''Alytos'') is a river in Romania. It is long, and its basin area is . It is the longest river flowing exclusively through Romania. Its average discharge at the mouth is . It originates in the Hă ...
. Its importance lies in a long
stratigraphy Stratigraphy is a branch of geology concerned with the study of rock layers (strata) and layering (stratification). It is primarily used in the study of sedimentary and layered volcanic rocks. Stratigraphy has three related subfields: lithost ...
comprising the timespan from the
Early Bronze Age The Bronze Age () was a historical period characterised principally by the use of bronze tools and the development of complex urban societies, as well as the adoption of writing in some areas. The Bronze Age is the middle principal period of ...
to the
Bronze Age The Bronze Age () was a historical period characterised principally by the use of bronze tools and the development of complex urban societies, as well as the adoption of writing in some areas. The Bronze Age is the middle principal period of ...
Iron Age The Iron Age () is the final epoch of the three historical Metal Ages, after the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age. It has also been considered as the final age of the three-age division starting with prehistory (before recorded history) and progre ...
transition. It is the most extensively researched site of this period in the region.


History of research

Chance finds from the Bronze Age were made in Rotbav already in the 19th century, but the "La Pârâuț" settlement was first investigated in the 1950s by a local teacher, Nicolae Croitoru. Systematic archaeological research started in the 1970s with excavations led by
Alexandru Vulpe Alexandru Vulpe (June 16, 1931 – February 9, 2016) was a Romanian historian and archaeologist, member of the Romanian Academy and director of the Vasile Pârvan Institute of Archaeology. Life Vulpe was born in 1931 in Bucharest, the son of a ...
and Mariana Marcu of the Bucharest Institute of Archaeology an
History Museum of Braşov
and was continued from 2005 on by Laura Dietrich, Oliver Dietrich and Alexandru Vulpe, within the framework of a cooperation project of the Bucharest Institute of Archaeology and the History Museum of Braşov. The settlement has a size of approximately 4 ha, of which 1800 square meters were excavated, the whole area was additionally investigated by archaeological and geophysical surveys (
magnetometry A magnetometer is a device that measures magnetic field or magnetic dipole moment. Different types of magnetometers measure the direction, strength, or relative change of a magnetic field at a particular location. A compass is one such device, o ...
).


Natural environment

Natural conditions and resources such as
salt In common usage, salt is a mineral composed primarily of sodium chloride (NaCl). When used in food, especially in granulated form, it is more formally called table salt. In the form of a natural crystalline mineral, salt is also known as r ...
and metals characterize southeastern
Transylvania Transylvania ( or ; ; or ; Transylvanian Saxon dialect, Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjen'') is a List of historical regions of Central Europe, historical and cultural region in Central Europe, encompassing central Romania. To the east and ...
as one of the most favourable
Bronze Age The Bronze Age () was a historical period characterised principally by the use of bronze tools and the development of complex urban societies, as well as the adoption of writing in some areas. The Bronze Age is the middle principal period of ...
settlement areas in
Europe Europe is a continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere. It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and Asia to the east ...
. Easily accessible passes through the
Carpathian Mountains The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians () are a range of mountains forming an arc across Central Europe and Southeast Europe. Roughly long, it is the third-longest European mountain range after the Ural Mountains, Urals at and the Scandinav ...
make it an important communication area between the eastern
Eurasian steppes The Eurasian Steppe, also called the Great Steppe or The Steppes, is the vast steppe ecoregion of Eurasia in the temperate grasslands, savannas and shrublands biome. It stretches through Manchuria, Mongolia, Xinjiang, Kazakhstan, Siberia, Euro ...
, the
Eastern Mediterranean The Eastern Mediterranean is a loosely delimited region comprising the easternmost portion of the Mediterranean Sea, and well as the adjoining land—often defined as the countries around the Levantine Sea. It includes the southern half of Turkey ...
region and
Central Europe Central Europe is a geographical region of Europe between Eastern Europe, Eastern, Southern Europe, Southern, Western Europe, Western and Northern Europe, Northern Europe. Central Europe is known for its cultural diversity; however, countries in ...
. Comparatively few
Bronze Age The Bronze Age () was a historical period characterised principally by the use of bronze tools and the development of complex urban societies, as well as the adoption of writing in some areas. The Bronze Age is the middle principal period of ...
sites were excavated in this region so far, Rotbav is the only multi-stratified site in which the whole development from the
Early Early may refer to: Places in the United States * Early, Iowa, a city * Early, Texas, a city * Early Branch, a stream in Missouri * Early County, Georgia * Fort Early, Georgia, an early 19th century fort Music * Early B, stage name of Jamaican d ...
until the
Late Bronze Age The Bronze Age () was a historical period characterised principally by the use of bronze tools and the development of complex urban societies, as well as the adoption of writing in some areas. The Bronze Age is the middle principal period of ...
(a period of about 800 years) could be observed.


La Pârâuț site

According to radiocarbon data, the
Bronze Age The Bronze Age () was a historical period characterised principally by the use of bronze tools and the development of complex urban societies, as well as the adoption of writing in some areas. The Bronze Age is the middle principal period of ...
settlement of Rotbav was inhabited between 1900/1800 and 1200/1100 BC ( calibrated data). The site was then abandoned-possibly due to climatic deterioration and
erosion Erosion is the action of surface processes (such as Surface runoff, water flow or wind) that removes soil, Rock (geology), rock, or dissolved material from one location on the Earth's crust#Crust, Earth's crust and then sediment transport, tran ...
processes-and never settled again. Agricultural use of the area started at the latest with the establishment of the medieval settlement of Rotbav around AD 1250.


Stratigraphy

The
stratigraphic Stratigraphy is a branch of geology concerned with the study of rock layers (strata) and layering (stratification). It is primarily used in the study of sedimentary and layered volcanic rocks. Stratigraphy has three related subfields: lithost ...
sequence covers six distinct building phases. The first three belong to the early
Middle Bronze Age The Bronze Age () was a historical period characterised principally by the use of bronze tools and the development of complex urban societies, as well as the adoption of writing in some areas. The Bronze Age is the middle principal period of ...
Wietenberg culture The Wietenberg culture was a Bronze Age Europe, Middle Bronze Age archeological culture in central Romania (Prehistory of Transylvania, Transylvania) that roughly dates to 2200–1600/1500 BCE. Representing a local variant of Usatove culture, ...
, followed by two of the Late Bronze Age Noua culture.Florescu, A. C. (1991). "Repertoriul culturii Noua-Coslogeni din România. Aşezări şi necropole". ''Cultură şi Civilizaţie la Dunărea de Jos'' 9. The latest building phase belongs to the Gáva culture, which marks the Bronze Age-Iron Age transition. Additionally, in a small part of the site, traces of the Late Copper Age
Baden Baden (; ) is a historical territory in southern Germany. In earlier times it was considered to be on both sides of the Upper Rhine, but since the Napoleonic Wars, it has been considered only East of the Rhine. History The margraves of Ba ...
-
Coțofeni culture The Coțofeni culture (), also known as the Baden-Coțofeni culture, and generally associated with the Usatove culture, was an Early Bronze Age archaeological culture that existed between 3500 and 2500 BC in the mid-Danube area of south-easter ...
were discovered.


Rotbav 1-3: The Wietenberg settlement

In the first three building phases belonging to the
Wietenberg culture The Wietenberg culture was a Bronze Age Europe, Middle Bronze Age archeological culture in central Romania (Prehistory of Transylvania, Transylvania) that roughly dates to 2200–1600/1500 BCE. Representing a local variant of Usatove culture, ...
, small houses of about 20-25 square meters were documented. They were constructed of wooden posts and wattle covered by daub, with some daub walls ornamented with spirals. The floors were made of
pisé Rammed earth is a technique for construction, constructing foundations, floors, and walls using compacted natural raw materials such as soil, earth, chalk, Lime (material), lime, or gravel. It is an ancient method that has been revived recently ...
. Such constructions leave few traces and are archaeologically almost invisible, so that only a minor number could be documented. Storage pits and fireplaces were found inside the houses; separate storage areas for vessels were also identified. In addition, special fireplaces used in cultic activities existed near the houses. They consist of round burnished clay surfaces decorated with spirals; in pits below them fragments of miniature wheels and wagons were found. Based on
palynological Palynology is the study of microorganisms and microscopic fragments of mega-organisms that are composed of acid-resistant organic material and occur in sediments, sedimentary rocks, and even some metasedimentary rocks. Palynomorphs are the mic ...
and archaeozoological data, the diet mainly consisted of
einkorn wheat Einkorn wheat (from German ''Einkorn'', literally "single grain") can refer to either a wild species of wheat (''Triticum'') or a domesticated form of wheat. The wild form is ''T. boeoticum'' (syn. ''T. m.'' subsp. ''boeoticum''), and the domes ...
,
barley Barley (), a member of the grass family, is a major cereal grain grown in temperate climates globally. It was one of the first cultivated grains; it was domesticated in the Fertile Crescent around 9000 BC, giving it nonshattering spikele ...
and
bromus ''Bromus'' is a large genus of grasses, classified in its own tribe Bromeae. They are commonly known as bromes, brome grasses, cheat grasses, or chess grasses. Estimates in the scientific literature of the number of species have ranged from 100 ...
,
cattle Cattle (''Bos taurus'') are large, domesticated, bovid ungulates widely kept as livestock. They are prominent modern members of the subfamily Bovinae and the most widespread species of the genus '' Bos''. Mature female cattle are calle ...
,
sheep Sheep (: sheep) or domestic sheep (''Ovis aries'') are a domesticated, ruminant mammal typically kept as livestock. Although the term ''sheep'' can apply to other species in the genus '' Ovis'', in everyday usage it almost always refers to d ...
,
pigs The pig (''Sus domesticus''), also called swine (: swine) or hog, is an omnivorous, domesticated, even-toed, hoofed mammal. It is named the domestic pig when distinguishing it from other members of the genus '' Sus''. Some authorities cons ...
and
goats The goat or domestic goat (''Capra hircus'') is a species of goat-antelope that is mostly kept as livestock. It was domesticated from the wild goat (''C. aegagrus'') of Southwest Asia and Eastern Europe. The goat is a member of the famil ...
. A lucky find is a vessel from a pit containing the carbonized rests of a gruel made ''inter alia'' of
acorn The acorn is the nut (fruit), nut of the oaks and their close relatives (genera ''Quercus'', ''Notholithocarpus'' and ''Lithocarpus'', in the family Fagaceae). It usually contains a seedling surrounded by two cotyledons (seedling leaves), en ...
s and meat. The cemetery was placed on the north border of the settlement; so far two urn graves were excavated. Presumably only a very small part of the population was actually buried, the Wietenberg cemeteries being generally very small. In the case of Rotbav, the dead were well burnt, then the bones were collected and put in the funerary urn, which was then placed in a bigger pit and surrounded by river snail shells. The characteristic find category of this period is the fine pottery, which was produced in large numbers and extensively decorated. The hard, well-burnt red or black ware bears incisions, stamps and impressions, which were finally filled with a white substance, probably made of bones or
lime Lime most commonly refers to: * Lime (fruit), a green citrus fruit * Lime (material), inorganic materials containing calcium, usually calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide * Lime (color), a color between yellow and green Lime may also refer to: Bo ...
. The earlier pottery shows geometrical motifs, in the second and third phase S- and Z-shaped hooks appear, which were most probably abstract representations of animals with a symbolic meaning in the community's
cosmology Cosmology () is a branch of physics and metaphysics dealing with the nature of the universe, the cosmos. The term ''cosmology'' was first used in English in 1656 in Thomas Blount's ''Glossographia'', with the meaning of "a speaking of the wo ...
.


Rotbav 4-5: The Noua settlement

At the beginning of the 15th century BC, after the last phase of the Wietenberg culture, a sudden change in the development of the settlement appeared. The architecture, the funerary rites, the pottery and
material culture Material culture is culture manifested by the Artifact (archaeology), physical objects and architecture of a society. The term is primarily used in archaeology and anthropology, but is also of interest to sociology, geography and history. The fie ...
in general changed. These changes resulted from the arrival of a new population from the
Eurasian steppes The Eurasian Steppe, also called the Great Steppe or The Steppes, is the vast steppe ecoregion of Eurasia in the temperate grasslands, savannas and shrublands biome. It stretches through Manchuria, Mongolia, Xinjiang, Kazakhstan, Siberia, Euro ...
, the so-called Noua-Sabatinovka-Coslogeni culture, in southeastern Transylvania. Houses are now characterized by massive limed floors, and the fireplaces were situated outside. The cemetery of the new population lies to the south of the settlement. Inhumation graves in stone cists are now typical, and the dead lie crouched on one side. Burial goods include vessels and food (animal bones). The pottery comprises much fewer shapes and is largely undecorated and coarse. The fine ware is represented exclusively by two- and one-handled drinking vessels (''
kantharoi A kantharos (; ) or cantharus () is a type of ancient Greek cup used for drinking. Although almost all surviving examples are in Greek pottery, the shape, like many Greek vessel types, probably originates in metalwork. In its iconic "Type A" fo ...
''). A special feature of the earlier Noua building phase is a so-called "ashmound". These round heaps formed of greyish sediments are typical for settlements of the Noua-Sabatinovka-Cologeni cultural complex. Until recently they were believed to represent the remains of houses or burned waste. New evidence shows that the "ashmounds" are not randomly formed mounds of waste, but special, collectively used places at the boundaries of settlements; they are not piled on the walking level, but in intentionally dug round basins. Chemical evidence from Rotbav and other sites proves the sediment to be constituted not of ash, but of a mixture of earth and
burnt lime Burned or burnt may refer to: * Anything which has undergone combustion * Burned (image), quality of an image transformed with loss of detail in all portions lighter than some limit, and/or those darker than some limit * ''Burnt'' (film), a 2015 ...
.
Burnt lime Burned or burnt may refer to: * Anything which has undergone combustion * Burned (image), quality of an image transformed with loss of detail in all portions lighter than some limit, and/or those darker than some limit * ''Burnt'' (film), a 2015 ...
is
ethnographically Ethnography is a branch of anthropology and the systematic study of individual cultures. It explores cultural phenomena from the point of view of the subject of the study. Ethnography is also a type of social research that involves examining ...
known to have been used for removing hair from hides. Tools for the scraping of hides, needles, awls and a considerable amount of animal bones, give further prove for an intense production of leather. Concentrations of drinking vessels and cooking utensils prove that the 'ashmounds' may also have played a role in feasting.


Rotbav 6: the Gáva settlement

Slow changes of the material culture mark the last building phase in Rotbav. Pottery shapes and ornamentation, especially of the coarse ware, have many similarities with the earlier phase. The typical two- and one-handled drinking vessels however are replaced by a new category of fine ware which is adopted from western Transylvania. This new style is characterized by channelled ornamentation, mainly realized on pottery with polished surfaces, hard baked and black on the outside and red/orange on the inside. A new settlement layout develops as a consequence of climatic changes.Falkenstein, Frank (1997). "Eine Katastrophen-Theorie zum Beginn der Urnenfelderkultur". In: C. Becker et al. (eds.), ''Chronos. Beiträge zur prähistorischen Archäologie zwischen Nord- und Südosteuropa. Festschrift für Bernhard Hänsel''. Marie Leidorf, Espelkamp, pp. 549-563. Up to long semi-subterranean dwellings are now attested. They are regularly dispersed over the settled area with open spaces of approximately between them, the fireplaces as well as numerous bell-shaped storage pits being situated outside the houses.


References


Bibliography

* Dietrich, Laura (2013)
"Visible workshops for invisible commodities. Leatherworking in the Late Bronze Age Noua culture's 'ashmounds'."
In: S.C. Ailincai, A. Țârlea, C. Micu (eds). ''Lower Danube Prehistory. 50 years of excavations at Babadag (1962‐2012)'', Brăila, pp. 227-246. * Dietrich, Laura (2012),
"Was sind die "Aschehügel" der Noua-Kultur? Das Beispiel aus Rotbav (Südostsiebenbürgen)"
In: Heske, I., Horejs, B. (eds.), ''Bronzezeitliche Identitäten und Objekte'', Bonn, pp. 207-217. * Dietrich, Laura and Dietrich, Oliver (2011 a)
"Wietenberg ohne Mykene? Gedanken zu Herkunft und Bedeutung der Keramikverzierung der Wietenberg-Kultur"
''Prähistorische Zeitschrift'' 86, 1, pp. 67-84. * Dietrich, Laura and Dietrich, Oliver (2011 b)
''Alte und neue Bronzefunde aus Rotbav, ȚLa PârâuțȚ''
Materiale și Cercetări Arheologice N.F. 3, 2007, 89-102. * Dietrich, Laura (2010 a)
"Eliten der frühen und mittleren Bronzezeit im südöstlichen Karpatenbecken"
''Prähistorische Zeitschrift'' 85, pp. 191-206. * Dietrich, Laura (2010 b)
"Ein Schmuckensemble der Noua-Kultur aus der bronzezeitlichen Siedlung von Rotbav (Südostsiebenbürgen)"
''Studii şi Cercetări de Istorie Veche şi Arheologie'' 61, 1-2, pp. 171-178. * Dietrich, Oliver (2010)
"Kinderspielzeug oder Kultobjekte? Überlegungen zu anthropomorphen Figurinen der Wietenberg- und Tei-Kultur"
In: Sándor Berecki, Rita E. Németh, Botond Rezi (eds.), ''Bronze Age Rites and Rituals in the Carpathian Basin. Proceedings of the International Colloquium from Târgu Mureş 8.-10.10.2010'', Târgu Mureş, pp. 87-106. * Dietrich, Oliver (2009)
"Ein kleiner Bronzedepotfund aus der Siedlung von Rotbav, „La Pârâuţ“ sowie einige Gedanken zum Auftreten zyprischer Schleifennadeln in der Noua-Kultur"
In: Laura Dietrich, Oliver Dietrich, Bernhard Heeb, Alexandru Szentmiklosi (ed.), ''In Honorem Tudor Soroceanu''. ''Analele Banatului'' XVII, pp. 97-107.


External links


Academia.edu: Laura Dietrich
bio at Academia.edu
Academia.edu: Oliver Dietrich
bio at Academia.edu
Project Rotbav
at Academia.edu {{coord missing, Brașov County Archaeological sites in Romania Bronze Age sites in Europe Tourist attractions in Brașov County