A robotaxi, also known as robot taxi, robo-taxi, self-driving taxi or driverless taxi, is an

autonomous car A self-driving car, also known as an autonomous car (AC), driverless car, robotic car or robo-car, is a car that is capable of operating with reduced or no User input, human input. They are sometimes called robotaxi, robotaxis, though this te ...

( SAE automation level 4 or 5) operated for a

ridesharing company A ridesharing company (or ridehailing service) is a company (or service offered by a company) that, via websites and mobile apps, matches passengers with drivers of vehicles for hire that, unlike taxis, cannot legally be hailed from the street. ...

. Some studies have hypothesized that robotaxis operated in an autonomous mobility on demand (AMoD) service could be one of the most rapidly adopted applications of autonomous cars at scale and a major mobility solution, especially in

urban area An urban area is a human settlement with a high population density and an infrastructure of built environment. Urban areas originate through urbanization, and researchers categorize them as cities, towns, conurbations or suburbs. In urbani ...

s. Moreover, they could have a very positive impact on

road safety Road traffic safety refers to the methods and measures, such as traffic calming, to prevent road users from being killed or seriously injured. Typical road users include pedestrians, cyclists, Driving, motorists, passengers of vehicles, and p ...

traffic congestion Traffic congestion is a condition in transport that is characterized by slower speeds, longer trip times, and increased vehicular queueing. Traffic congestion on urban road networks has increased substantially since the 1950s, resulting in m ...

and

parking Parking is the act of stopping and disengaging a vehicle and usually leaving it unoccupied. Parking on one or both sides of a road is often permitted, though sometimes with restrictions. Some buildings have parking facilities for use of the bu ...

. Robotaxis could also reduce urban

pollution Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause harm. Pollution can take the form of any substance (solid, liquid, or gas) or energy (such as radioactivity, heat, sound, or light). Pollutants, the component ...

and

energy consumption Energy consumption is the amount of energy used. Biology In the body, energy consumption is part of energy homeostasis. It derived from food energy. Energy consumption in the body is a product of the basal metabolic rate and the physical acti ...

, since these services will most probably use

electric car An electric car or electric vehicle (EV) is a passenger car, passenger automobile that is propelled by an electric motor, electric traction motor, using electrical energy as the primary source of propulsion. The term normally refers to a p ...

s and for most of the rides, less vehicle size and range is necessary compared to individually owned vehicles. The expected reduction in number of vehicles means less

embodied energy Embodied energy is the sum of all the energy required to produce any goods or services, considered as if that energy were incorporated or 'embodied' in the product itself. The concept can help determine the effectiveness of energy-producing or ...

; however energy consumption for redistribution of empty vehicles must be taken into account. Robotaxis would reduce operating costs by eliminating the need for a human driver, which might make it an affordable form of transportation and increase the popularity of transportation-as-a-service (TaaS) as opposed to individual

car ownership Car ownership is the ownership of a car. Car ownership typically requires far fewer permits than driving that car on public roads (i.e. driver's license, car insurance, etc.). History Levels of ownership have risen significantly since automobiles ...

. Such developments could lead to job destruction and new challenges concerning operator liabilities. In 2023, some robotaxis caused congestion when they blocked roads due to lost cellular connectivity, and others failed to properly yield to emergency vehicles. there has been only one fatality associated with a robotaxi, a pedestrian who was hit by an Uber test vehicle in 2018. Predictions of the widespread and rapid introduction of robotaxis – by as early as 2018 – have not been realized. There are a number of trials underway in cities around the world, some of which are open to the public and generate revenue. However, as of 2021, questions have been raised as to whether the progress of self-driving technology has stalled and whether issues of social acceptance, cybersecurity and cost have been addressed.

Status

Vehicle costs

So far all the trials have involved specially modified passenger cars with space for two or four passengers sitting in the back seats behind a partition.

LIDAR Lidar (, also LIDAR, an acronym of "light detection and ranging" or "laser imaging, detection, and ranging") is a method for determining ranging, ranges by targeting an object or a surface with a laser and measuring the time for the reflected li ...

, cameras and other sensors have been used on all vehicles. The cost of early vehicles was estimated in 2020 at up to US$400,000 due to custom manufacture and specialized sensors. However, the prices of some components such as LIDAR have fallen significantly. In January 2021, Waymo stated its costs were approximately $180,000 per vehicle, and its operating cost at $0.30 per mile (~$0.19 per km), well below Uber and Lyft, but this excludes the cost of fleet technicians and customer support.

Baidu Baidu, Inc. ( ; ) is a Chinese multinational technology company specializing in Internet services and artificial intelligence. It holds a dominant position in China's search engine market (via Baidu Search), and provides a wide variety of o ...

announced in June 2021 it would start producing robotaxis for 500,000 yuan ($77,665) each. Tesla has discussed a sub-$25,000 Tesla Robotaxi, and as of 2023 is designing an assembly line that will accommodate the vehicle.

Passenger tests

Several companies are testing robotaxi services, especially in the United States and in China. All operate only in a geo-fenced area. Service areas for robotaxis, also known as the Objective Design Domain (ODD), are specially designated zones where robotaxis can safely provide service. As of 2024,

's had carried the most passengers, over 6 million by April 2024. Other providers in China include AutoX,

DiDi Didi Chuxing Technology Company is a Chinese vehicle for hire company headquartered in Beijing with over 550 million users and tens of millions of drivers. The company provides app-based transportation services, including taxi hailing, private ...

, Pony.ai, WeRide, all operating in 10 or more cities. In the US,

Waymo Waymo LLC, formerly known as the Google Self-Driving Car Project, is an American autonomous driving technology company headquartered in Mountain View, California. It is a subsidiary of Google's parent company (Alphabet Inc., Alphabet Inc). T ...

is the most prominent provider, operating in San Francisco, Phoenix, and Los Angeles. A 2024 study of Waymo indicated an 85% reduction in injury crashes per mile driven. Separate to these efforts have been trials of larger shared autonomous vehicles on fixed routes with designated stops, able to carry between 6 and 10 passengers. These shuttle buses operate at low speeds.

Current obstacles to robotaxis

At present, it is not only technical issues that hinder the widespread use of robotaxis, but also social issues. First, consumers' concerns about the reliability and safety of self-driving taxis are a major obstacle. For example, system failures during the service process and the risk of accident perception will reduce potential users. In addition, consumers still have doubts about whether the robotaxi can cope with complex urban environments or severe weather conditions.

Licenses

In February 2018 Arizona granted Waymo a Transportation Network Company permit. In February 2022 the

California Public Utilities Commission The California Public Utilities Commission (CPUC or PUC) is a regulatory agency that regulates privately owned public utilities in the state of California, including electric power, telecommunications, natural gas and water companies. In addition ...

(CPUC) issued Drivered Deployment permits to Cruise and Waymo to allow passenger service in autonomous vehicles with a safety driver present in the vehicle. These carriers must hold a valid

California Department of Motor Vehicles The California Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) is the state agency that registers motor vehicles and boats and issues driver licenses in the U.S. state of California. It regulates new car dealers (through the New Motor Vehicle Board), c ...

(DMV) Deployment permit and meet the requirements of the CPUC Drivered Deployment program. In June 2022, Cruise received approval to operate a commercial robotaxi service in

San Francisco San Francisco, officially the City and County of San Francisco, is a commercial, Financial District, San Francisco, financial, and Culture of San Francisco, cultural center of Northern California. With a population of 827,526 residents as of ...

. In April 2022, China gave

and Pony.ai its first permits to deploy robotaxis without safety drivers on open roads within a 23 square mile area in the Beijing Economic-Technological Development Area. In August 2023, the CPUC approved granting additional operating authority for Cruise LLC and Waymo LLC to conduct commercial passenger service using vehicles without safety drivers in San Francisco.The approval
includes the ability for both companies to charge fares for rides at any time of day.

History

First trials

On August 18, 2016, Uber CEO Travis Kalanick announced the company would be opening their autonomous taxi fleet to the public in Pittsburgh in the next few weeks. In a race to be first, NuTonomy suprise-launched their robotaxi service a week late

though only to select members of the public though through a closed-invitation and in a limited district in Singapore. Uber proceeded with their public launch in September of 2016, with customers being assigned human or autonomous cars interchangeably when requesting rides through the regular Uber app. NuTonomy later signed three significant partnerships to develop its robotaxi service: with Grab (application), Grab,

Uber Uber Technologies, Inc. is an American multinational transportation company that provides Ridesharing company, ride-hailing services, courier services, food delivery, and freight transport. It is headquartered in San Francisco, California, a ...

’s rival in Southeast Asia, with

Groupe PSA Peugeot S.A., trading as Groupe PSA () (formerly PSA Peugeot Citroën from 1991 to 2016) was a French multinational automotive manufacturing company which produced automobiles and motorcycles under the Peugeot, Citroën, DS, Opel and Vauxhal ...

, which is supposed to provide the company with Peugeot 3008 SUVs and the last one with

Lyft Lyft, Inc. is an American company offering ride-hailing services, motorized scooters, and bicycle-sharing systems in the United States and Canada. Lyft sets fares, which vary using a dynamic pricing model based on local supply and demand a ...

to launch a robotaxi service in

Boston Boston is the capital and most populous city in the Commonwealth (U.S. state), Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. The city serves as the cultural and Financial centre, financial center of New England, a region of the Northeas ...

. In August 2017, Cruise Automation, a self-driving startup acquired by

General Motors General Motors Company (GM) is an American Multinational corporation, multinational Automotive industry, automotive manufacturing company headquartered in Detroit, Michigan, United States. The company is most known for owning and manufacturing f ...

in 2016, launched the beta version of a robotaxi service for its employees in

using a fleet of 46 Chevrolet Bolt EVs.

Testing and revenue service timeline

''Trials listed have a safety driver unless otherwise indicated. The commencement of a trial does not mean it is still active.'' * August 2016 – NuTonomy launched a closed-invite autonomous taxi service using a fleet of 6 modified Renault Zoes and Mitsubishi i-MiEVs, limited to operating within their office's district in Singapore. Human drivers were seated in the front for safety. * September 2016 –

launched its autonomous taxi service in

Pittsburgh Pittsburgh ( ) is a city in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, United States, and its county seat. It is the List of municipalities in Pennsylvania#Municipalities, second-most populous city in Pennsylvania (after Philadelphia) and the List of Un ...

, Pennsylvania, with an initial fleet size of 14 vehicles, with a planned fleet of around 100 cars. This was open to the public through the regular Uber app, with customers being assigned human or autonomous cars interchangeably. Human drivers were seated in the front for safety. The autonomous area covered 31 square kilometers of the downtown core of Pittsburgh. * March 2017 – An Uber self-driving car was hit and flipped on its side by another vehicle that failed to yield. In October 2017, Uber started using only one safety driver. * April 2017 –

started a large scale robotaxi tests in a geo-fenced suburb of

Phoenix, Arizona Phoenix ( ) is the List of capitals in the United States, capital and List of cities and towns in Arizona#List of cities and towns, most populous city of the U.S. state of Arizona. With over 1.6 million residents at the 2020 census, it is the ...

with a driver monitoring each vehicle. The service area was about .. In November 2017, some driverless testing began. Commercial operations began in November 2019. * August 2017 – Cruise Automation launched the beta version robotaxi service for 250 employees (10% of its staff) in

using a fleet of 46 vehicles. * March 2018 – A woman attempting to cross a street in

Tempe, Arizona Tempe ( ; ''Oidbaḍ'' in O'odham language, O'odham) is a city in Maricopa County, Arizona, United States, with the Census Bureau reporting a 2020 population of 180,587. The city is named after the Vale of Tempe in Greece. Tempe is located in t ...

at night was struck and killed by an Uber vehicle while the onboard safety driver was watching videos. Uber later restarted testing, but only during daylight hours and at slower speeds. * August 2018 –

Yandex Yandex LLC ( rus, Яндекс, r=Yandeks, p=ˈjandəks) is a Russian technology company that provides Internet-related products and services including a web browser, search engine, cloud computing, web mapping, online food ordering, streaming ...

began a trial with two vehicles in Innopolis,

Russia Russia, or the Russian Federation, is a country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the list of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the world, and extends across Time in Russia, eleven time zones, sharing Borders ...

. * December 2018 – Waymo started a self-driving taxi service, dubbed Waymo One, for paying customers in Arizona. * April 2019 – Pony.ai launched a pilot system for employees and invited affiliates, serving pre-defined pickup points and covering in Guangzhou, China. * November 2019 – WeRide RoboTaxi began a pilot service with 20 vehicles in

Guangzhou Guangzhou, Chinese postal romanization, previously romanized as Canton or Kwangchow, is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Guangdong Provinces of China, province in South China, southern China. Located on the Pearl River about nor ...

and Huangpu over an area of . * November 2019 – Pony.ai started a three-month trial in Irvine, California with 10 cars and stops for pickup and drop off. * April 2020 –

opened its trial of 45 vehicles in

Changsha Changsha is the capital of Hunan, China. It is the 15th most populous city in China with a population of 10,513,100, the Central China#Cities with urban area over one million in population, third-most populous city in Central China, and the ...

, China to public users for free trips, serving 100 designated spots on a set network. Services operated from 9:20am to 4:40pm with a safety-driver and a "navigator", allowing space for two passengers in the back. * June 2020 –

robotaxi service began operation in

Shanghai Shanghai, Shanghainese: , Standard Chinese pronunciation: is a direct-administered municipality and the most populous urban area in China. The city is located on the Chinese shoreline on the southern estuary of the Yangtze River, with the ...

in an area that covered Shanghai's Automobile Exhibition Center, the local business districts, subway stations and hotels in the downtown area. * August 2020 – Baidu began offering free trips, with app bookings, on its trial in

Cangzhou Cangzhou; Jilu Mandarin, locally pronounced as is a prefecture-level city in eastern Hebei province of China, province, People's Republic of China. At the 2020 Chinese census, 2020 census, Cangzhou's built-up (''or metro'') area made of Yunh ...

, China, which served 55 designated spots over pre-defined routes. * December 2020 – AutoX (which is backed by

Alibaba Group Alibaba Group Holding Limited, branded as Alibaba (), is a Chinese Multinational corporation, multinational technology company specializing in E-commerce in China, e-commerce, retail, Internet, and technology. Founded on 28 June 1999 in Hangzho ...

) launched a non-public trial of driverless robotaxis in

Shenzhen Shenzhen is a prefecture-level city in the province of Guangdong, China. A Special economic zones of China, special economic zone, it is located on the east bank of the Pearl River (China), Pearl River estuary on the central coast of Guangdong ...

with 25 vehicles. The service was then opened to the public in January 2021. * February 2021 – Waymo One began limited robotaxi service in a number of suburbs of

for a selection of its own employees. In August 2021, the public was invited to apply to use the service with limited locations. A safety driver was present in each vehicle. The number of vehicles involved has not been disclosed. * May 2021 –

commenced a commercial robotaxi service with ten Apollo Go vehicles in a area with eight pickup and drop-off stops, in Shougang Park in western

Beijing Beijing, Chinese postal romanization, previously romanized as Peking, is the capital city of China. With more than 22 million residents, it is the world's List of national capitals by population, most populous national capital city as well as ...

. * July 2021 – Baidu opened a pilot program to the public in

with a fleet of 30 sedans serving in the Huangpu district. 200 designated spots were served between 9:30am and 11pm every day. * July 2021 – DeepRoute.ai began a free-of-charge trial with 20 vehicles in downtown Shenzhen, serving 100 pickup and dropoff locations. * February 2022 – Cruise opened up its driverless cars in San Francisco to the public. * February 2023 – Zoox, the self-driving startup owned by

Amazon Amazon most often refers to: * Amazon River, in South America * Amazon rainforest, a rainforest covering most of the Amazon basin * Amazon (company), an American multinational technology company * Amazons, a tribe of female warriors in Greek myth ...

, carried passengers in its robotaxi for the first time in

Foster City, California Foster City is a master-planned city located in San Mateo County, California, United States. Foster City is sometimes considered to be part of Silicon Valley for its local industry and its proximity to Silicon Valley cities. There are many n ...

. * August 2023 –

and Cruise were authorized by the CPUC to collect fares for driverless rides in

. * December 2023 – China finalized regulations on commercial robotaxi operation. Roboshuttles or robotrucks were required to maintain in-car drivers. Robotaxis could use remote operators. The robotaxi:remote operator ratio could not exceed 3:1. Operators had to be certified. Accident reporting rules specified required data. * April 2024, Baidu Apollo, AutoX, Pony.ai,

and WeRide were each operating in 10 to 25 cities, with fleets of hundreds of robotaxis. Baidu Apollo had traveled over without a major accident. * July 2024 – In

Wuhan Wuhan; is the capital of Hubei, China. With a population of over eleven million, it is the most populous city in Hubei and the List of cities in China by population, eighth-most-populous city in China. It is also one of the nine National cent ...

's attempts at commercializing Apollo Go robotaxis received massive attention from social media. Base fares started as low as 4

Chinese yuan The renminbi ( ; currency symbol, symbol: Yen and yuan sign, ¥; ISO 4217, ISO code: CNY; abbreviation: RMB), also known as the Chinese yuan, is the official currency of the China, People's Republic of China. The renminbi is issued by the Peop ...

(0.55

USD The United States dollar (symbol: $; currency code: USD) is the official currency of the United States and several other countries. The Coinage Act of 1792 introduced the U.S. dollar at par with the Spanish silver dollar, divided it int ...

), compared to 18 yuan (2.48 USD) for a human-driven taxi. The rapid adoption of driverless taxis rattled China's gig economy workforce. However, their popularity boosted Baidu's shares. * August 2024 – In most areas of Wuhan, Baidu’s Apollo Go robotaxis could now operate fully autonomously without any safety personnel on board. The company recorded 899,000 rides in the second quarter of 2024, bringing the total number of rides to 7 million as of July 28, 2024.

Notable commercial ventures

Uber Advanced Technology Group

began development of self-driving vehicles in early 2015. In September 2016, the company started a trial allowing a select group of users of its

ride-hailing A ridesharing company (or ridehailing service) is a company (or service offered by a company) that, via websites and mobile apps, matches passengers with drivers of vehicles for hire that, unlike taxis, cannot legally be hailed from the street. ...

service in

to order robotaxis from a fleet of 14 modified Ford Fusions. The test extended to

with modified

Volvo XC90 The Volvo XC90 is a Executive car, mid-size luxury SUV manufactured and marketed by Volvo Cars since 2002 and now in its second generation. The first generation was introduced at the North American International Auto Show#2002, 2002 North Ameri ...

s before being relocated to

in February 2017. In March 2017, one of Uber's robotaxis crashed in self-driving mode in Arizona, which led the company to suspend its tests before resuming them a few days later. In March 2018, Uber paused self-driving vehicle testing after the death of Elaine Herzberg in

, a pedestrian struck by an Uber vehicle while attempting to cross the street, while the onboard engineer was watching videos. Uber settled with the victim's family. In January 2021, Uber sold its self driving division, Advanced Technologies Group (ATG), to Aurora Innovation for $4 billion while also investing $400 million into Aurora for a 26% ownership stake.

Waymo

In early 2017,

, the

Google Google LLC (, ) is an American multinational corporation and technology company focusing on online advertising, search engine technology, cloud computing, computer software, quantum computing, e-commerce, consumer electronics, and artificial ...

self-driving car project which became an independent company in 2016, started a large public robotaxi test in Phoenix using 100 and then 500 more Chrysler Pacifica Hybrid minivans provided by

Fiat Chrysler Automobiles Fiat Chrysler Automobiles N.V. (FCA), now part of Stellantis, was an Italian-American multinational corporation primarily known as a manufacturer of Car, automobiles, commercial vehicles, List of auto parts, auto parts and production systems. ...

as part of a partnership between the two companies. Waymo also signed a deal with

to collaborate on self-driving cars in May 2017. In November 2017,

revealed it had begun to operate some of its automated vehicles in Arizona without a safety driver behind the wheel. And in December 2018, Waymo started self-driving taxi service, dubbed Waymo One, in Arizona for paying customers. By November 2019, the service was operating autonomous vehicles without a safety backup driver. The autonomous taxi service was operating in San Francisco as of 2021. In December 2022, the company applied for a permit to operating self-driving taxi rides in California without a human operator present as backup.

Baidu Apollo

In September 2019, Baidu's autonomous driving unit Apollo launched Apollo Go robotaxi service, with an initial fleet of 45 autonomous vehicles. Apollo Go has since expanded to more than 10 Chinese cities. In August 2022, Baidu achieved a landmark victory in the race for autonomous vehicles by securing the first permits in China to deploy fully driverless taxis in the cities of Wuhan and Chongqing. In May 2024, Baidu unveiled the Apollo ADFM, claimed to be the world's first Level 4 autonomous driving foundation model, along with the sixth-generation Apollo Go robotaxi, which can be produced for under $30,000. The company also said by April 2024, Apollo had accumulated over 100 million kilometers of autonomous driving without major accidents. In August 2024, Apollo Go has deployed 400 robotaxis operating fully autonomously without any safety personnel on board in Wuhan, offering 24/7 service to 9 million residents. Baidu aims for Apollo Go to achieve operational unit breakeven in Wuhan by the end of 2024.

GM Cruise

In January 2020, GM subsidiary Cruise exhibited the Cruise Origin, a Level 4–5 driverless vehicle, intended to be used for a

ride hailing A ridesharing company (or ridehailing service) is a company (or service offered by a company) that, via websites and mobile apps, matches passengers with drivers of vehicles for hire that, unlike taxis, cannot legally be hailed from the street. ...

service. In February 2022, Cruise started driverless taxi service in San Francisco. Also in February 2022, Cruise petitioned U.S. regulators (

NHTSA The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA ) is an agency of the U.S. federal government, part of the Department of Transportation, focused on automobile safety regulations. NHTSA is charged with writing and enforcing Feder ...

) for permission to build and deploy a self-driving vehicle without human controls. , the petition is pending. In April 2022, their partner

Honda commonly known as just Honda, is a Japanese multinational corporation, multinational Conglomerate (company), conglomerate automotive manufacturer headquartered in Minato, Tokyo, Japan. Founded in October 1946 by Soichiro Honda, Honda has bee ...

unveiled its Level 4 mobility service partners to roll out in central Tokyo in the mid-2020s using the Cruise Origin. Unfortunately, there are signs that autonomously operated Cruise vehicles may interfere with emergency vehicles, and has been culpable of at least one collision with a fire truck. On 2 October 2023, a Cruise vehicle operating autonomously (without driver supervision) collided with a pedestrian. Instead of stopping immediately, the vehicle misidentified the collision mechanics and presumed it was crashed into from the side. Consequently, the vehicle proceeded to drag the pedestrian under the car for until it came to a stop on the side of the road. As both the response of the vehicle was deemed unacceptable and the company appears to have withheld details of the crash from regulators, California regulators revoked the license to operate these cars. Cruise recalled all of its 950 vehicles in November 2023. These decisions were enacted in parallel with the exposure of safety risks, identified earlier within the Cruise company, regarding proper vehicle behavior around children and around construction sites.

Tesla

Tesla's CEO

Elon Musk Elon Reeve Musk ( ; born June 28, 1971) is a businessman. He is known for his leadership of Tesla, SpaceX, X (formerly Twitter), and the Department of Government Efficiency (DOGE). Musk has been considered the wealthiest person in th ...

has predicted since 2019 that Tesla would have robotaxis on the road within years. He was expected to announce the plans for Tesla's robotaxi on 8 August 2024, but the event was moved to 10 October 2024. During that event Tesla demonstrated two new vehicles, the two-seater Tesla Cybercab and the 14-seater (plus standing room) Tesla Robovan, which can carry up to 20 passengers. The company also reiterated that all of their other models of cars and pickup trucks would be usable as robotaxis after a software update and regulatory approval, which they expected at the earliest in California and Texas in 2025.

Other developments

Many automakers announced their plans in 2015–2018 to develop robotaxis before 2025 and specific partnerships have been signed between automakers, technology providers and service operators, including: * The startup Zoox announcing in 2015 its ambition to build a robotaxi from scratch. *

BMW Bayerische Motoren Werke AG, trading as BMW Group (commonly abbreviated to BMW (), sometimes anglicised as Bavarian Motor Works), is a German multinational manufacturer of vehicles and motorcycles headquartered in Munich, Bavaria, Germany. Th ...

and

partnering in 2016 with

Intel Intel Corporation is an American multinational corporation and technology company headquartered in Santa Clara, California, and Delaware General Corporation Law, incorporated in Delaware. Intel designs, manufactures, and sells computer compo ...

and

Mobileye Mobileye Global Inc. is a United States- domiciled, Israel-headquartered autonomous driving company. It is developing self-driving technologies and advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) including cameras, computer chips, and software. Mobil ...

to develop robotaxis by 2021. *

partnering in 2016 with

Nvidia Nvidia Corporation ( ) is an American multinational corporation and technology company headquartered in Santa Clara, California, and incorporated in Delaware. Founded in 1993 by Jensen Huang (president and CEO), Chris Malachowsky, and Curti ...

to develop autonomous cars and robotaxis. *

Daimler AG Mercedes-Benz Group AG (formerly Daimler-Benz, DaimlerChrysler, and Daimler) is a German multinational automotive company headquartered in Stuttgart, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. It is one of the world's leading car manufacturers. Daimler-B ...

teaming up with Bosch in 2017 to develop the software for a robotaxi service by 2025. * The Renault-Nissan-Mitsubishi Alliance partnering in 2017 with

Transdev Transdev, formerly Veolia Transdev, is a France-based international private-sector company which operates public transport. It has operations in 17 countries and territories as of November 2020. Transdev was formed on 3 April 2011 via the merg ...

and

DeNA is a Japanese provider of mobile portal and e-commerce websites headquartered in Shibuya, Tokyo. It owns the Mobage cell phone platform and also operates other services, including the e-commerce website DeNA Shopping (formerly: Bidders). H ...

to develop robotaxi services within 10 years. *

releasing in 2017 an autonomous concept car, NeuV, that aims at being a personal robotaxi. *

Ford Motor Ford Motor Company (commonly known as Ford) is an American multinational automobile manufacturer headquartered in Dearborn, Michigan, United States. It was founded by Henry Ford and incorporated on June 16, 1903. The company sells automobil ...

's plan in 2017 to develop a robotaxi by 2021 through partnerships with several startups. *

investing $1 billion in the startup Argo AI in 2017 to develop autonomous cars and robotaxis; the startup was disbanded in 2022 by Ford. *

and Ford partnering in 2017 to add Ford's self-driving cars to Lyft's ride-hailing network;

leading a $1 billion investment in 2017 in

which could support

's robotaxi strategy; in 2021, Lyft's self-driving division was sold to

Toyota is a Japanese Multinational corporation, multinational Automotive industry, automotive manufacturer headquartered in Toyota City, Aichi, Japan. It was founded by Kiichiro Toyoda and incorporated on August 28, 1937. Toyota is the List of manuf ...

. *

Delphi Delphi (; ), in legend previously called Pytho (Πυθώ), was an ancient sacred precinct and the seat of Pythia, the major oracle who was consulted about important decisions throughout the ancient Classical antiquity, classical world. The A ...

buying the startup NuTonomy for $400 million in 2017. *

Parsons Corporation Parsons Corporation is an American multinational technology-focused defense, intelligence, and infrastructure engineering firm. Founded in 1944, Parsons is headquartered in Chantilly, Virginia, and serves both government and private sector orga ...

announcing in 2017 a partnership with automated mobility operating system company Renovo.auto to deploy and scale AMoD services. * Didi Chuxing partnering in 2018 with the Renault-Nissan-Mitsubishi Alliance and other automakers to explore the future launch of robotaxi services in China.

References

{{Public transport * Automotive technologies Robotics Transport culture Taxis