Robert Sternberg
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Robert J. Sternberg (born December 8, 1949) is an American
psychologist A psychologist is a professional who practices psychology and studies mental states, perceptual, cognitive, emotional, and social processes and behavior. Their work often involves the experimentation, observation, and explanation, interpretatio ...
and psychometrician. He is a Professor of Human Development at
Cornell University Cornell University is a Private university, private Ivy League research university based in Ithaca, New York, United States. The university was co-founded by American philanthropist Ezra Cornell and historian and educator Andrew Dickson W ...
. Sternberg has a BA from
Yale University Yale University is a Private university, private Ivy League research university in New Haven, Connecticut, United States. Founded in 1701, Yale is the List of Colonial Colleges, third-oldest institution of higher education in the United Stat ...
and a PhD from
Stanford University Leland Stanford Junior University, commonly referred to as Stanford University, is a Private university, private research university in Stanford, California, United States. It was founded in 1885 by railroad magnate Leland Stanford (the eighth ...
, under advisor Gordon Bower. He holds thirteen honorary doctorates from two North American, one South American, one Asian, and nine European universities, and additionally holds an honorary professorship at the
University of Heidelberg Heidelberg University, officially the Ruprecht Karl University of Heidelberg (; ), is a public university, public research university in Heidelberg, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Founded in 1386 on instruction of Pope Urban VI, Heidelberg is List ...
, in Germany. He is a Distinguished Associate of the Psychometrics Centre at the
University of Cambridge The University of Cambridge is a Public university, public collegiate university, collegiate research university in Cambridge, England. Founded in 1209, the University of Cambridge is the List of oldest universities in continuous operation, wo ...
. Among his major contributions to psychology, the most notable are the
triarchic theory of intelligence The triarchic theory of intelligence or three forms of intelligence, formulated by psychologist Robert Sternberg, aims to go against the psychometrics, psychometric approach to intelligence and take a more cognitive sciences, cognitive approach, wh ...
and several influential theories related to creativity, wisdom, thinking styles, love, hate, and leadership. A ''
Review of General Psychology ''Review of General Psychology'' is the quarterly scientific journal of the American Psychological Association Division 1: The Society for general psychology. The journal publishes cross-disciplinary psychological articles that are conceptual, theo ...
'' survey, published in 2002, ranked Sternberg as the 60th most cited psychologist of the 20th century.


Early life

Sternberg was born on December 8, 1949, to a
Jewish Jews (, , ), or the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group and nation, originating from the Israelites of History of ancient Israel and Judah, ancient Israel and Judah. They also traditionally adhere to Judaism. Jewish ethnicity, rel ...
family, in
New Jersey New Jersey is a U.S. state, state located in both the Mid-Atlantic States, Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern United States, Northeastern regions of the United States. Located at the geographic hub of the urban area, heavily urbanized Northeas ...
. Sternberg suffered from
test anxiety Test anxiety is a combination of physiological over-arousal, Stress (biology), tension and somatic symptoms, along with Worry, worry, dread, fear of failure, and Exaggeration, catastrophizing, that occur before or during test situations.Zeidner M. ...
as a child. As a result, he became an inadequate test taker. This upset him and he reasoned that a test was not an adequate measurement of his true knowledge and academic abilities. When he later retook a test in a room that consisted of younger students, he felt more comfortable and his scores increased dramatically. Sternberg later constructed the Test of Mental Ability (STOMA), his first intelligence test. This problem of test-taking is what sparked Sternberg's interest in psychology.


Career

Sternberg was an undergraduate student at Yale University. Neither of Sternberg's parents finished high school, and he attended Yale only by achieving a National Merit Scholarship and receiving financial aid. He did so poorly in his introductory psychology class that his professor insisted that he pursue another major. Determined to succeed, Sternberg earned a BA summa cum laude, and was elected to
Phi Beta Kappa The Phi Beta Kappa Society () is the oldest academic honor society in the United States. It was founded in 1776 at the College of William & Mary in Virginia. Phi Beta Kappa aims to promote and advocate excellence in the liberal arts and sciences, ...
, gaining honors and exceptional distinction in psychology. Sternberg continued his academic career at Stanford University, where he earned his PhD, in 1975. Sternberg returned to Yale as an assistant professor of Psychology in 1975, and would work at Yale for three decades, eventually becoming the IBM Professor of Psychology and Education, as well as the founder and director of the Center for the Psychology of Abilities, Competencies and Expertise. He left Yale in 2005 to assume the position of Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences at Tufts University, where he quickly began his job search for a promotion to a Provost position. After multiple unsuccessful high-profile attempts to gain other academic leadership positions within a few years of arriving at Tufts, including at the University of Colorado and the University of Iowa, Sternberg was offered a position at Oklahoma State University in 2010, where he remained as provost for three years. In early 2013, Sternberg was named the new president of the University of Wyoming. After resigning from the University of Wyoming in late 2013, Sternberg joined the Human Development faculty of Cornell University.


University of Wyoming presidency

Sternberg took office in July 2013 as the University of Wyoming's 24th president. His major aim was to push the "development of ethical leadership in students, faculty and staff". Therefore, Sternberg wanted to change the University of Wyoming's test-based selection process of applicants towards an ethics-based admission process: "The set of analytical skills evaluated in the ACT merican College Testingis only a small sliver of what you need to be an ethical leader." After arriving at the University of Wyoming, Sternberg's term was marked by tumult in the faculty. Three weeks after taking in office as Wyoming's new president, the provost and vice president for academic affairs was asked to resign and stepped down. In the next four months, three associate provosts and four deans were asked to resign or resigned voluntarily—many explicitly citing disagreements with President Sternberg's approach. In the ''Chronicle of Higher Education'', November 15, 2013 ("President of U of Wyoming Abruptly Resigns" by Lindsay Ellis), Sternberg's tenure was described as "a period that saw rapid turnover among senior administrators and unsettled the campus." The last dean who stepped down, the Dean of the College of Law, Stephen Easton, accused Sternberg at a university meeting of unethical treatment of staff, professors, and schools. "You have not treated this law school ethically." Sternberg refused to discuss the case at the meeting. The '' Casper Star Tribune'' portrayed the situation at the university as "chaos in the college". Additionally, other provosts blamed a lack of respect for and interest in human capital. According to Peter Shive, a professor emeritus, Sternberg asked everyone to wear the school colors, brown and gold, on Fridays. Shive said the farther away from the administrative building he went, the fewer people were wearing brown and gold. Ray Hunkins, a UW Law College graduate, former counsel to the UW trustees, a member of the board of directors of the UW Foundation, and the Republican nominee for governor of Wyoming in
2006 2006 was designated as the International Year of Deserts and Desertification. Events January * January 1– 4 – Russia temporarily cuts shipment of natural gas to Ukraine during a price dispute. * January 12 – A stampede during t ...
, questioned Sternberg's policies that had led to the dismissal or resignation of the administrators. "I think there's chaos in the university," Hunkins said. On November 14, 2013, only 137 days after Sternberg had taken the helm of UW, it was announced at a press conference following a trustees meeting in William Robertson Coe Library that Sternberg had tendered his resignation to the board. In a public statement read by the trustee president, David Bostrom, Sternberg said that despite his care for the university, "It may not be the best fit for me as president." Laughter arose immediately upon the reading of Sternberg's statement. In accordance to university regulations, vice president for academic affairs Dr. Dick McGinity took the office as interim president. His resignation was neither asked for, nor forced by the Board of Trustees. According to the ''Wyoming News'', Sternberg's four-month presidency produced more than $1.25 million in administration-related costs equivalent to the costs of 31 faculty staff positions for one year. That includes $377,000 for Sternberg's severance pay, including $325,000 that he will be paid 2014; $37,500 in deferred compensation Sternberg is due by December 31; about $89,000 for the next presidential search; $330,000 for search firms to find replacements for administrators and deans who resigned; $265,000 for renovations to the house and garage that Sternberg was allowed to continue to rent at a price of $1,100 a month until May 31.


Honorary degrees

Sternberg holds thirteen honorary doctorates, including some from universities outside the United States. The list of foreign universities that awarded the degrees includes Complutense University of Madrid (Spain), University of Durham (UK), University of Leuven (Belgium), Tilburg University (the Netherlands), University of Cyprus, University of Paris V (France), and St. Petersburg State University (Russia).


Publication ethics

Sternberg began serving as editor of the journal ''
Perspectives on Psychological Science ''Perspectives on Psychological Science'' is a bimonthly peer-reviewed academic journal of psychology. The journal was established in 2006 and the founding editor was Ed Diener (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign). It is currently published ...
'' in 2015. As editor he published eight commentaries in his own journal between 2016 and 2018 without peer review. In response to one of these pieces, a letter of concern was drafted, which over 100 psychologists endorsed. In addition to the concerns about the lack of peer review, the letter of concern also mentioned that these articles feature extreme levels of self-citation, ranging from 42% to 65%. In response to the letter and from pressure on social media, Sternberg resigned in late April 2018 from his position of editor of ''Perspectives on Psychological Science'', over a year and a half before his term was scheduled to end.


Awards and recognition

Sternberg's awards include the Cattell Award from the
Association for Psychological Science The Association for Psychological Science (APS), previously the American Psychological Society, is an international non-profit organization whose mission is to promote, protect, and advance the interests of scientifically oriented psychology in r ...
(APS), Sir
Francis Galton Sir Francis Galton (; 16 February 1822 – 17 January 1911) was an English polymath and the originator of eugenics during the Victorian era; his ideas later became the basis of behavioural genetics. Galton produced over 340 papers and b ...
Award from the International Association of Empirical Aesthetics, the Arthur W. Staats Award from the American Psychological Foundation and the Society for General Psychology, the E. L. Thorndike Award for Career Achievement in Educational Psychology Award from the Society for Educational Psychology of the
American Psychological Association The American Psychological Association (APA) is the main professional organization of psychologists in the United States, and the largest psychological association in the world. It has over 170,000 members, including scientists, educators, clin ...
(APA) and the
Grawemeyer Award The Grawemeyer Awards () are five awards given annually by the University of Louisville. The prizes are presented to individuals in the fields of education, ideas improving world order, music composition, religion, and psychology. The religion awa ...
for Psychology in 2018. In the APA Monitor on Psychology, Sternberg has been rated as one of the top 100 psychologists of the twentieth century. The ISI has rated Sternberg as one of the most highly cited authors in psychology and psychiatry (top .5 percent). Sternberg is a fellow of the National Academy of Education, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and other organizations. He is past-president of the
American Psychological Association The American Psychological Association (APA) is the main professional organization of psychologists in the United States, and the largest psychological association in the world. It has over 170,000 members, including scientists, educators, clin ...
and the Eastern Psychological Association, and currently is President of the Federation of Associations in the Behavioral and Brain Sciences.


Research interests

Sternberg's main research include the following interests: *Higher mental functions, including
intelligence Intelligence has been defined in many ways: the capacity for abstraction, logic, understanding, self-awareness, learning, emotional knowledge, reasoning, planning, creativity, critical thinking, and problem-solving. It can be described as t ...
and
creativity Creativity is the ability to form novel and valuable Idea, ideas or works using one's imagination. Products of creativity may be intangible (e.g. an idea, scientific theory, Literature, literary work, musical composition, or joke), or a physica ...
and
wisdom Wisdom, also known as sapience, is the ability to apply knowledge, experience, and good judgment to navigate life’s complexities. It is often associated with insight, discernment, and ethics in decision-making. Throughout history, wisdom ha ...
*Styles of thinking *Cognitive modifiability *Leadership *Love and hate Sternberg has proposed a
triarchic theory of intelligence The triarchic theory of intelligence or three forms of intelligence, formulated by psychologist Robert Sternberg, aims to go against the psychometrics, psychometric approach to intelligence and take a more cognitive sciences, cognitive approach, wh ...
and a triangular theory of love. He is the creator (with Todd Lubart) of the investment theory of creativity, which states that creative people buy low and sell high in the world of ideas, and a propulsion theory of creative contributions, which states that creativity is a form of leadership. He spearheaded an experimental admissions process at Tufts to quantify and test the creativity, practical skills, and wisdom-based skills of an applicant.Jaschik, Scott (2006)
A "Rainbow" Approach to Admissions
Inside Higher Ed ''Inside Higher Ed'' is an American online publication of news, opinion, resources, events and jobs in the higher education sphere. In 2022, Quad Partners, a private equity firm, sold it to Times Higher Education, itself owned by Inflexion Priv ...
, July 6, 2006.
He used similar techniques when he was provost at Oklahoma State. Sternberg has criticized IQ tests, saying they are "convenient partial operationalizations of the construct of
intelligence Intelligence has been defined in many ways: the capacity for abstraction, logic, understanding, self-awareness, learning, emotional knowledge, reasoning, planning, creativity, critical thinking, and problem-solving. It can be described as t ...
, and nothing more. They do not provide the kind of measurement of intelligence that tape measures provide of height." In 1995, he was on an
American Psychological Association The American Psychological Association (APA) is the main professional organization of psychologists in the United States, and the largest psychological association in the world. It has over 170,000 members, including scientists, educators, clin ...
task force writing a consensus statement on the state of intelligence research in response to the claims being advanced amid the '' Bell Curve'' controversy, titled " Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns."


Triarchic theory of intelligence

Many descriptions of intelligence focus on mental abilities such as
vocabulary A vocabulary (also known as a lexicon) is a set of words, typically the set in a language or the set known to an individual. The word ''vocabulary'' originated from the Latin , meaning "a word, name". It forms an essential component of languag ...
, comprehension,
memory Memory is the faculty of the mind by which data or information is encoded, stored, and retrieved when needed. It is the retention of information over time for the purpose of influencing future action. If past events could not be remembe ...
and
problem-solving Problem solving is the process of achieving a goal by overcoming obstacles, a frequent part of most activities. Problems in need of solutions range from simple personal tasks (e.g. how to turn on an appliance) to complex issues in business an ...
that can be measured through
intelligence tests An intelligence quotient (IQ) is a total score derived from a set of standardized tests or subtests designed to assess human intelligence. Originally, IQ was a score obtained by dividing a person's mental age score, obtained by administering ...
. This reflects the tendency of psychologists to develop their understanding of intelligence by observing behavior believed to be associated with intelligence. Sternberg believes that this focus on specific types of measurable mental abilities is too narrow. He believes that studying intelligence in this way leads to an understanding of only one part of intelligence and that this part is only seen in people who are "school smart" or "book smart". There are, for example, many individuals who score poorly on intelligence tests, but are creative or are "street smart" and therefore have a very good ability to adapt and shape their environment. According to Sternberg (2003),
giftedness Intellectual giftedness is an intellectual ability significantly higher than average and is also known as high potential. It is a characteristic of children, variously defined, that motivates differences in school programming. It is thought to per ...
should be examined in a broader way incorporating other parts of intelligence.


The triarchic model

Sternberg (2003) categorizes
intelligence Intelligence has been defined in many ways: the capacity for abstraction, logic, understanding, self-awareness, learning, emotional knowledge, reasoning, planning, creativity, critical thinking, and problem-solving. It can be described as t ...
into three parts, which are central in his theory: * Analytical intelligence, the ability to complete academic, problem-solving tasks, such as those used in traditional intelligence tests. These types of tasks usually present well-defined problems that have only a single correct answer. * Creative or
synthetic intelligence Synthetic intelligence (SI) is an alternative/opposite term for artificial intelligence emphasizing that the intelligence of machines need not be an imitation or in any way artificial; it can be a genuine form of intelligence. John Haugeland prop ...
, the ability to successfully deal with new and unusual situations by drawing on existing
knowledge Knowledge is an Declarative knowledge, awareness of facts, a Knowledge by acquaintance, familiarity with individuals and situations, or a Procedural knowledge, practical skill. Knowledge of facts, also called propositional knowledge, is oft ...
and
skill A skill is the learned or innate ability to act with determined results with good execution often within a given amount of time, energy, or both. Skills can often be divided into domain-general and domain-specific skills. Some examples of gen ...
s. Individuals high in creative intelligence may give 'wrong' answers because they see things from a different perspective. *Practical intelligence, the ability to adapt to everyday life by drawing on existing knowledge and skills. Practical intelligence enables an individual to understand what needs to be done in a specific setting and then do it. Sternberg (2003) discusses experience and its role in intelligence. Creative or synthetic intelligence helps individuals to transfer
information Information is an Abstraction, abstract concept that refers to something which has the power Communication, to inform. At the most fundamental level, it pertains to the Interpretation (philosophy), interpretation (perhaps Interpretation (log ...
from one problem to another. Sternberg calls the application of ideas from one problem to a new type of problem ''relative novelty''. In contrast to the skills of relative novelty there is ''relative familiarity'' which enables an individual to become so familiar with a process that it becomes automatized. This can free up brain resources for coping with new ideas. Context, or how one adapts, selects and shapes their environment is another area that is not represented by traditional measures of giftedness. Practically intelligent people are good at picking up tacit information and utilizing that information. They tend to shape their environment around them. (Sternberg, 2003) Sternberg (2003) developed a testing instrument to identify people who are gifted in ways that other tests don't identify. The Sternberg Triarchic Abilities Test measures not only traditional intelligence abilities but analytic,
synthetic Synthetic may refer to: Science * Synthetic biology * Synthetic chemical or compound, produced by the process of chemical synthesis * Synthetic elements, chemical elements that are not naturally found on Earth and therefore have to be created in ...
, automatization and practical abilities as well. There are four ways in which this test is different from conventional intelligence tests. *This test is broader, measuring synthetic and practical skills in addition to analytic skills. The test provides scores on analytic, synthetic, automatization, and practical abilities, as well as verbal, quantitative, and figural processing abilities. *The test measures the ability to understand unknown words in context rather than vocabulary skills which are dependent on an individual's background. *The automatization subtest is the only part of the test that measures mental speed. *The test is based on a theory of intelligence.


Practical application

Sternberg added experimental criteria to the application process for undergraduates to
Tufts University Tufts University is a private research university in Medford and Somerville, Massachusetts, United States, with additional facilities in Boston and Grafton, as well as Talloires, France. Tufts also has several Doctor of Physical Therapy p ...
, where he was Dean of Arts and Sciences, to test "creativity and other non-academic factors." Calling it the "first major university to try such a departure from the norm," ''
Inside Higher Ed ''Inside Higher Ed'' is an American online publication of news, opinion, resources, events and jobs in the higher education sphere. In 2022, Quad Partners, a private equity firm, sold it to Times Higher Education, itself owned by Inflexion Priv ...
'' noted that Tufts continues to consider the
SAT The SAT ( ) is a standardized test widely used for college admissions in the United States. Since its debut in 1926, its name and Test score, scoring have changed several times. For much of its history, it was called the Scholastic Aptitude Test ...
and other traditional criteria.McAnerny, Kelly (2005)
From Sternberg, a new take on what makes kids Tufts-worthy
. '' Tufts Daily'', November 15, 2005.


Theory in cognitive styles

Sternberg proposed a theory of cognitive styles in 1988. Sternberg's basic idea is that the forms of government we have in the world are external reflections of the way different people view and act in the world, that is, different ways of organizing and thinking. Cognitive styles should not be confused with abilities, they are the way we prefer to use these abilities. Indeed, a good fit between a person's preferred cognitive profile and his abilities can create a powerful synergy that outweighs the sum of its parts. The main three branches of government are the executive branch, legislative branch and judicial branch. People also need to perform these functions in their own thinking and working. Legislative people like to build new structures, creating their own rules along the way. Executive people are rule followers, they like to be given a predetermined structure in which to work. Judicial people like to evaluate rules and procedures, to analyze a given structure. The four forms of mental self-government are hierarchical, monarchic, oligarchic, and anarchic. The hierarchic style holds multiple goals simultaneously and prioritizes them. The oligarchic style is similar but differs in involving difficulty prioritizing. The monarchic style, in comparison, focuses on a single activity until completion. The anarchic style resists
conformity Conformity or conformism is the act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to social group, group norms, politics or being like-minded. Social norm, Norms are implicit, specific rules, guidance shared by a group of individuals, that guide t ...
to "systems, rules, or particular approaches to problems." The two levels of mental self-government are local and global. The local style focuses on more specific and concrete problems, in extreme case they "can't see the forest for the trees". The global style, in comparison, focuses on more abstract and global problems, in extreme cases they "can't see the trees for the forest". The two scopes of mental self-government are internal and external. The internal style focuses inwards and prefers to work independently. The external style focuses outwards and prefers to work in
collaboration Collaboration (from Latin ''com-'' "with" + ''laborare'' "to labor", "to work") is the process of two or more people, entities or organizations working together to complete a task or achieve a goal. Collaboration is similar to cooperation. The ...
. The two leanings of mental self-government are the liberal and conservative. These styles have nothing to do with politics. The liberal individual likes change, to go beyond existing rules and procedures. The conservative individual dislikes change and ambiguity, he will be happiest in a familiar and predictable environment. All people have different profiles of thinking styles which can change over situations and time of life. Moreover, a person can, and often does, have a secondary preferred thinking style.


Bibliography (selection)


On human intelligence

*Sternberg, R. J. (1977): ''Intelligence, information processing, and analogical reasoning: The componential analysis of human abilities''.Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. *Sternberg, R. J. (1985): ''Beyond IQ: A triarchic theory of human intelligence''.
New York City New York, often called New York City (NYC), is the most populous city in the United States, located at the southern tip of New York State on one of the world's largest natural harbors. The city comprises five boroughs, each coextensive w ...
:
Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press was the university press of the University of Cambridge. Granted a letters patent by King Henry VIII in 1534, it was the oldest university press in the world. Cambridge University Press merged with Cambridge Assessme ...
. * *Sternberg, R. J. (1990): ''Metaphors of mind: Conceptions of the nature of intelligence''. New York: Cambridge University Press. * * *Sternberg, R. J. (1997): ''Successful intelligence''. New York: Plume. * * *Sternberg, R. J. et al. (2000): ''Practical intelligence in everyday life''. New York: Cambridge University Press. * *Sternberg, R. J., & Grigorenko, E. L. (2000): ''Teaching for successful intelligence''. Arlington Heights, IL: Skylight. * * * * * *Sternberg, R.J. (2007): ''Wisdom, Intelligence, and Creativity Synthesized''. New York: Cambridge University Press. * *Sternberg, R. J. (2010): "College admissions for the 21st century. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. * * *Sternberg, R. J., Landy, J., & Long, J. (2024). Measuring Adaptive Intelligence of the Gifted Through Critical Problem Analysis. ''Roeper Review'', ''46''(3), 217–232
doi:10.1080/02783193.2024.2357543


On creativity and intellectual giftedness

*Sternberg, R. J., & Lubart, T. I. (1995): ''Defying the crowd: Cultivating creativity in a culture of conformity''. New York: Free Press. *Sternberg, R. J., & Williams, W. M. (1996): ''How to develop student creativity''. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. *Sternberg, R. J., James C Kaufman, & Pretz, J. E. (2002): ''The creativity conundrum: A propulsion model of creative contributions''. Philadelphia, PA. * * *


On leadership

*


On cognitive styles

* *


Other works, including edited volumes

* * **. * * * *


References


External links


Robert J. Sternberg. A page dedicated to his life's work.Biographical sketch
The Psychometrics Centre

University of Cambridge The University of Cambridge is a Public university, public collegiate university, collegiate research university in Cambridge, England. Founded in 1209, the University of Cambridge is the List of oldest universities in continuous operation, wo ...
*
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence - uwsp.eduVideo (with mp3 available) of discussion about intelligence and creativity with Sternberg
on Bloggingheads.tv {{DEFAULTSORT:Sternberg, Robert Living people American cognitive psychologists Sternberg, Robert J. American educational psychologists American intelligence researchers Jewish American scientists Fellows of the Society of Experimental Psychologists Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science Oklahoma State University faculty People from Newark, New Jersey Presidents of the American Psychological Association Presidents of the University of Wyoming Stanford University alumni Tufts University faculty Yale University alumni Yale University faculty 20th-century American psychologists 21st-century American psychologists American textbook writers 21st-century American Jews 1949 births James McKeen Cattell Fellow Award recipients