Rerum Novarum

''Rerum novarum'', or ''Rights and Duties of Capital and Labor'', is an encyclical issued by Pope Leo XIII on 15 May 1891. It is an open letter, passed to all Catholic patriarchs, primates, archbishops, and bishops, which addressed the condition of the working class. It discusses the relationships and mutual duties between labor and capital, as well as government and its citizens. Of primary concern is the need for poverty amelioration of the working class. It supports the rights of labor to form trade unions, and rejects both socialism and capitalism while affirming the right to private property and to a living wage.

A foundational text of modern Catholic social teaching, many of the positions in ''Rerum novarum'' are supplemented by later encyclicals, in particular Pius XI's '' Quadragesimo anno'' (1931), John XXIII's '' Mater et magistra'' (1961), Paul VI's '' Octogesima adveniens'' (1971), and John Paul II's '' Centesimus annus'' (1991), each of which commemorates an anniversary of the publication of ''Rerum novarum''. It also inspired Catholic activism, and influenced distributists and supporters of corporatism. Socialists generally contest the encyclical's interpretation of socialism, and some socialists, particularly Christian socialists, interpret ''Rerum novarum'' as not rejecting socialism, argue that divine law justifies the abolition of private property, and emphasize its anti-capitalist character.

Composition

The first draft and content of the encyclical was written by Tommaso Maria Zigliara, professor from 1870 to 1879 at the College of Saint Thomas (rector after 1873), a member of seven Roman congregations including the Congregation for Studies, and co-founder of the Pontifical Academy of Saint Thomas Aquinas in 1879. Zigliara's fame as a scholar at the forefront of the Thomist revival was widespread in Rome and elsewhere. In addition to ''Rerum novarum'', which elicited the strongest response in the United States, Zigliara had contributed to the drafting of the encyclical '' Aeterni Patris'' (1879), which addressed modern science and attempted to advance the revival of Scholastic philosophy; he was a strong opponent of traditionalism and ontologism, favoring instead the moderate philosophical realism of Thomas Aquinas, and was with Giuseppe Pecci one of the Thomist cardinals of Leo.

The encyclical was made possible by the writings of the precursors of economic personalism, in particular the Jesuit fathers Luigi Taparelli D'Azeglio and Matteo Liberatore. The latter was one of the authors of the document together with the Dominican Cardinal Tommaso Maria Zigliara. In drafting the encyclical, the Pope requested the collaboration of the then secretary for Latin letters Vincenzo Tarozzi. The German theologian Wilhelm Emmanuel von Ketteler and the British Cardinal Henry Edward Manning were also influential in its composition. Manning, who was a significant contributor to the development of the encyclical, encouraged English Catholics to engage in politics and seek economic justice, even going so far as to support the 1889 London dock strike.

Message

''Rerum novarum'' explicitly addresses the condition of the working class and is subtitled "On the Conditions of Labor", reflecting the need that a "remedy must be found quickly for the misery and wretchedness pressing so unjustly on the majority of the working class". In this encyclical, Leo articulates the Catholic Church's response to the social conflict in the wake of capitalism and industrialization, which had provoked socialist and communist movements and ideologies, as well as to the emerging economic liberal and Marxist theories. The encyclical defends the right of workers to form unions and the institution of property, as well as the right to a living wage. At the same time, it condemns socialism and capitalism, particularly state socialism and competitive or '' laissez-faire'' capitalism, while avoiding more radical alternatives like Georgism.

The Pope declares that the role of the state is to promote justice through the protection of rights, while the Church must speak out on social issues to teach correct social principles and ensure class harmony, calming class conflict. He restates the Church's long-standing teaching regarding the crucial importance of private property rights but recognizes, in one of the well-known passages of the encyclical, that the free operation of market forces must be tempered by moral considerations. In that passage, he writes: "Let the working man and the employer make free agreements, and in particular let them agree freely as to the wages; nevertheless, there underlies a dictate of natural justice more imperious and ancient than any bargain between man and man, namely, that wages ought not to be insufficient to support a frugal and well-behaved wage-earner. If through necessity or fear of a worse evil the workman accept harder conditions because an employer or contractor will afford him no better, he is made the victim of force and injustice."

''Rerum novarum'' is remarkable for its vivid depiction of the plight of the 19th-century urban poor and for its condemnation of ''laissez-faire'' capitalism. Among the remedies it prescribes are the formation of trade unions and the introduction of collective bargaining, particularly as an alternative to state intervention. Although the encyclical follows traditional teaching concerning the rights and duties of property and the relations of employer and employee, it applies the old doctrines specifically to modern conditions, hence the title. Leo first quotes Aquinas in affirming that private property is a fundamental principle of natural law. He then quotes Gregory the Great regarding its proper use: "He that hath a talent, let him see that he hide it not; he that hath abundance, let him quicken himself to mercy and generosity; he that hath art and skill, let him do his best to share the use and the utility hereof with his neighbor." ''Rerum novarum'' also recognizes the special status of the poor in relation to social issues, expressing God's compassion and favor for them; this is elaborated in the modern Catholic principle of the "preferential option for the poor".

Criticism of socialism and ''laissez-faire'' capitalism

In addition to liberalism and other forms of modernism, socialism was first condemned in '' Syllabus of Errors'' (1864) by Pope Pius IX. As in the encyclical ''Libertas'' (1888), which addressed liberalism as the other 19th-century main political movement, Leo lists the positive and negative aspects of socialism in ''Rerum novarum''. Whereas in '' Quod apostolici muneris'' (1878) he gave a strong condemnation of socialism, communism, and nihilism, ''Rerum novarum'' offers a more nuanced critique that nonetheless ultimately sees certain expressions of socialism as fundamentally flawed. Leo argues that socialists sought to replace rights and Catholic moral teaching with the ideology of state power. He argues that this would lead to the destruction of the family unit, where moral, productive individuals were taught and raised most successfully.

Leo opposes socialism for its rejection of private property, stating "the main tenet of socialism, the community of goods, must be utterly rejected", and despite his support for some state intervention, he also rejects socialism for giving too much power to the state. He argues that equality in society is not obtainable "in capability, in diligence, in health, and in strength; an unequal fortune is a necessary result of inequality in condition." In response to the socialist arguments, he writes: "To remedy these wrongs the socialists, working on the poor man's envy of the rich, are striving to do away with private property, and contend that individual possessions should become the common property of all, to be administered by the State or by municipal bodies. They hold that by thus transferring property from private individuals to the community, the present mischievous state of things will be set to rights, inasmuch as each citizen will then get his fair share of whatever there is to enjoy. But their contentions are so clearly powerless to end the controversy that were they carried into effect the working man himself would be among the first to suffer. They are, moreover, emphatically unjust, for they would rob the lawful possessor, distort the functions of the State, and create utter confusion in the community."

Although most well known for its critique of socialism, particularly among conservative circles, ''Rerum novarum'' equally opposes ''laissez-faire'' capitalism and individualism. For instance, Leo writes of "the cruelty of grasping speculators who use human beings as mere instruments for making money" and called for the government to ensure that the poor are "housed, clothed and enabled to support life". In this sense, ''Rerum novarum'' argues that the state should not only make interventions for the common good but particularly for the poor and the working class, and thus could be used to argue for socialism despite its condemnation of socialism "as an answer to social problems". In another passage, Leo writes: "But all agree, and there can be no question whatever, that some remedy must be found, and quickly found, for the misery and wretchedness which press so heavily at this moment on the large majority of the very poor."

Rights and duties

In many cases, governments had acted solely to support the interests of businesses, while suppressing labor unions' attempts to bargain for better working conditions. To build social harmony, the Pope proposes a framework of reciprocal rights and duties between workers and employers. Some of the duties of workers are "fully and faithfully" to perform their agreed-upon tasks, to individually refrain from vandalism or personal violence, and to collectively refrain from rioting and insurrection. Some of the duties of employers are to provide work suited to each person's strength, gender, and age, and to respect the dignity of workers and not treat them as bondmen. By reminding workers and employers of their rights and duties, the Church can form and awaken their conscience; however, the Pope also recommends that civil authorities act to protect workers' rights and to keep the peace. The law should intervene no further than necessary to stop abuses. In stating the rights and duties of both workers and employers in ''Rerum novarum'', the Church officially organized its effort against the socialist movement.

Principles

Dignity of the person

Leo states that "according to natural reason and Christian philosophy, working for gain is creditable, not shameful, to a man, since it enables him to earn an honorable livelihood." He asserts that God has given human dignity to each person, creating them in God's image and endowing them with free will and immortal souls. To respect their workers' dignity in the workplace, employers should give time off from work to worship God, and to fulfill family obligations; give periods of rest, not expecting work for long hours that preclude adequate sleep; not require work under unsafe conditions with danger of bodily harm; not require work under immoral conditions that endanger the soul; and pay a fair daily wage, for which employees should give a full day's work.

The Pope specifically mentions work in the mining sector, and outdoor work in certain seasons, as dangerous to health and requiring additional protections. He condemns the use of child labor as interfering with education and the development of children, stating that children should not be placed in "workshops and factories until their bodies and minds are sufficiently mature" and seeks to shield children from work "which is suitable for a strong man". Fair wages are defined in ''Rerum novarum'' as "enough to support the wage-earner in reasonable and frugal comfort". Leo recommends paying enough to support the worker, his wife, and family, with a little savings left over for the worker to improve his condition over time. He also prefers that women work at home.

Common good

Without recommending one form of government over another, Leo puts forth principles for the appropriate role of the state. The primary purpose of a state is to provide for the common good. All people have equal dignity regardless of social class, and a good government protects the rights and cares for the needs of all its members, rich and poor. Everyone can contribute to the common good in some important way. Leo asserts no one should be forced to share his goods; when one is blessed with material wealth, they have a duty to use this to benefit as many others as possible. The ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' lists three principal aspects of the common good: 1) respect for the human person and his rights; 2) social well-being and development; and 3) peace, "the stability and security of a just order".

Subsidiarity

According to Leo, socialism seeks to replace the rights and duties of parents, families, and communities with the central supervision of the state. The civil government should not intrude into the family, the basic building block of society; if a family finds itself in exceeding distress due to illness, injury, or natural disaster, this extreme necessity should be met with public aid, since each family is a part of the commonwealth. By the same token, if there occur a grave disturbance of mutual rights within a household, public authority should intervene to give each party its proper due. Authorities should only intervene when a family or community is unable or unwilling to fulfill its mutual rights and duties.

Rights and duties of property ownership

While criticizing liberalism, individualism, and unrestricted capitalism, Leo supports private property. Quoting Aquinas, Leo writes: "Private ownership, as we have seen, is the natural right of man, and to exercise that right, especially as members of society, is not only lawful, but absolutely necessary. 'It is lawful,' says St. Thomas Aquinas, 'for a man to hold private property; and it is also necessary for the carrying on of human existence. In another passage, he argues: "Whoever has received from the divine bounty a large share of temporal blessings, whether they be external and material, or gifts of the mind, has received them for the purpose of using them for the perfecting of his own nature, and, at the same time, that he may employ them, as the steward of God's providence, for the benefit of others."

Preferential option for the poor

Leo emphasizes the dignity of the poor and working classes, and writes: "As for those who possess not the gifts of fortune, they are taught by the Church that in God's sight poverty is no disgrace, and that there is nothing to be ashamed of in earning their bread by labor." Citing the Gospel, he adds: "God Himself seems to incline rather to those who suffer misfortune; for Jesus Christ calls the poor 'blessed'; att.5:3He lovingly invites those in labor and grief to come to Him for solace; att. 11:28and He displays the tenderest charity toward the lowly and the oppressed." In regards to the rich and the poor, Leo writes: "The richer class have many ways of shielding themselves, and stand less in need of help from the State; whereas the mass of the poor have no resources of their own to fall back upon, and must chiefly depend upon the assistance of the State. And it is for this reason that wage-earners, since they mostly belong in the mass of the needy, should be specially cared for and protected by the government."

The principle of the " preferential option for the poor" does not appear in ''Rerum novarum'' and was developed more fully in radically different ways by later theologians and popes. The phrase "option for the poor" is not without its controversy within Catholic social teaching. Although regularly used into the 21st century, the phrase came into common use only in the 1970s, largely among Latin American liberation theologians, and has accrued little papal rearticulation within the encyclical tradition. In 1968, in response to Paul VI's '' Populorum progressio'' (1967), the Latin American bishops met in Medellín, Colombia, and issued a series of documents condemning "structural injustice" (e.g. 1:2, 2:16, 10:2, and 15:1), calling for a "struggle for liberation", and insisting that "in many instances Latin America finds itself faced with a situation of injustice that can be called institutional violence" (2:16). The bishops in Medellín then insisted on giving "effective preference to the poorest and most needy sectors of society", thus giving the first voice to what is now concretized as "the preferential option for the poor". It was at Medellín that the Latin American bishops took the most decisive step toward an "option for the poor".

Right of association

Leo distinguishes the larger civil society

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