Renewables
Renewable energy (also called green energy) is energy made from renewable natural resources that are replenished on a human timescale. The most widely used renewable energy types are solar energy, wind power, and hydropower. Bioenergy and ...
supply a quarter of
energy in Turkey, including
heat
In thermodynamics, heat is energy in transfer between a thermodynamic system and its surroundings by such mechanisms as thermal conduction, electromagnetic radiation, and friction, which are microscopic in nature, involving sub-atomic, ato ...
and
electricity
Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and motion of matter possessing an electric charge. Electricity is related to magnetism, both being part of the phenomenon of electromagnetism, as described by Maxwel ...
. Some houses have rooftop
solar water heating
Solar water heating (SWH) is water heating, heating water by sunlight, using a solar thermal collector. A variety of configurations are available at varying cost to provide solutions in different climates and latitudes. SWHs are widely used for ...
, and
hot water from underground warms many spas and greenhouses. In parts of the west hot rocks are shallow enough to generate electricity as well as heat. Wind turbines, also mainly near western cities and industry, generate a tenth of Turkey’s electricity.
Hydropower
Hydropower (from Ancient Greek -, "water"), also known as water power or water energy, is the use of falling or fast-running water to Electricity generation, produce electricity or to power machines. This is achieved by energy transformation, ...
, mostly from dams in the east, is the only modern renewable energy which is fully exploited. Hydropower averages about a fifth of the country's electricity, but much less in
drought years.
Apart from wind and hydro, other renewables; such as geothermal,
solar
Solar may refer to:
Astronomy
* Of or relating to the Sun
** Solar telescope, a special purpose telescope used to observe the Sun
** A device that utilizes solar energy (e.g. "solar panels")
** Solar calendar, a calendar whose dates indicate t ...
and
biogas
Biogas is a gaseous renewable energy source produced from raw materials such as agricultural waste, manure, municipal waste, plant material, sewage, green waste, Wastewater treatment, wastewater, and food waste. Biogas is produced by anaerobic ...
; together generated almost a tenth of Turkey’s electricity in 2022.
Over half the installed capacity for electricity generation is renewables.
Turkey has a long history of wood burning,
windmills, and bathing in
hot springs
A hot spring, hydrothermal spring, or geothermal spring is a Spring (hydrology), spring produced by the emergence of Geothermal activity, geothermally heated groundwater onto the surface of the Earth. The groundwater is heated either by shallow ...
. Many dams were built from the mid-20th to early 21st century, but some say that governments have not allowed civil society enough influence on
energy policy
Energy policies are the government's strategies and decisions regarding the Energy production, production, Energy distribution, distribution, and World energy supply and consumption, consumption of energy within a specific jurisdiction. Energy ...
, leading to protests against building dams, geothermal power plants, and at least one wind farm.
Despite
Turkey’s sunny climate solar power is underdeveloped. As the electricity system is already flexible increasing to 70% renewables is easily feasible.
Solar power could be expanded more quickly if the
electricity grid
An electrical grid (or electricity network) is an interconnected network for electricity delivery from producers to consumers. Electrical grids consist of power stations, electrical substations to step voltage up or down, electric power trans ...
was improved faster and energy policy revised, especially by abolishing
fossil fuel subsidies
Fossil fuel subsidies are energy subsidies on fossil fuels. Under a narrow definition, fossil fuel subsidies totalled around $1.5 trillion in 2022. Under more expansive definition, they totalled around $7 trillion. They may be tax breaks on c ...
.
Many
hybrid power plants are planned, and
batteries are being integrated. Companies with a lot of renewables include
the state electricity generation company (mainly hydro),
Aydem, and
Kalyon. If renewables could help
phase-out coal by 2030, instead of by the national
net zero
Global net-zero emissions is reached when greenhouse gas emissions and removals due to human activities are in balance. It is often called simply net zero. ''Emissions'' can refer to all greenhouse gases or only carbon dioxide (). Reaching net ze ...
greenhouse gas emissions
Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from human activities intensify the greenhouse effect. This contributes to climate change. Carbon dioxide (), from burning fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum, oil, and natural gas, is the main cause of climate chan ...
target year of 2053, that would have significant
health
Health has a variety of definitions, which have been used for different purposes over time. In general, it refers to physical and emotional well-being, especially that associated with normal functioning of the human body, absent of disease, p ...
benefits and reduce
inflation in Turkey. As of 2022 renewables are not sufficient to meet that target year.
Various
electric vehicles
An electric vehicle (EV) is a motor vehicle whose propulsion is powered fully or mostly by electricity. EVs encompass a wide range of transportation modes, including road vehicle, road and rail vehicles, electric boats and Submersible, submer ...
are being manufactured, which will use some of the increased renewable generation and help reduce
air pollution
Air pollution is the presence of substances in the Atmosphere of Earth, air that are harmful to humans, other living beings or the environment. Pollutants can be Gas, gases like Ground-level ozone, ozone or nitrogen oxides or small particles li ...
.
Sources of renewable energy
Solar power
Wind power
Hydroelectricity
Geothermal energy
Bioenergy
Hybrid projects, storage and integration
Solar is often added to existing power plants, such as geothermal, hydro, and wind. A solar and biomass hybrid is also feasible. Up to 15% of the existing installed capacity can be added without requiring a new licence, provided generation does not exceed that limit, although the extra capacity cannot receive a USD subsidy.
There is a
virtual power plant which operates with geothermal, wind, solar and hydro. Combining wind and/or solar with
storage is also popular. Increasing Turkey's proportion of electric cars in use to 10% by 2030 would help integrate variable electricity.
Transmission and distribution cables are at medium risk from earthquakes and transformers at high risk whereas solar is low risk:
Think tank Shura suggests that microgrids of solar and batteries could increase resilience against earthquakes.
Future
Wind
Wind is the natural movement of atmosphere of Earth, air or other gases relative to a planetary surface, planet's surface. Winds occur on a range of scales, from thunderstorm flows lasting tens of minutes, to local breezes generated by heatin ...
, and especially
solar
Solar may refer to:
Astronomy
* Of or relating to the Sun
** Solar telescope, a special purpose telescope used to observe the Sun
** A device that utilizes solar energy (e.g. "solar panels")
** Solar calendar, a calendar whose dates indicate t ...
, could supply much more
energy in Turkey.
It is estimated that over half of
electricity generation
Electricity generation is the process of generating electric power from sources of primary energy. For electric utility, utilities in the electric power industry, it is the stage prior to its Electricity delivery, delivery (Electric power transm ...
could be from renewables by 2026, but Turkey has invested less in solar and wind power than similar Mediterranean countries.
More renewable energy could be used to reduce
the nation's greenhouse gas emissions, and thus avoid paying other countries'
carbon tariff A carbon tariff or carbon border adjustment mechanism (CBAM) is an eco-tariff on embedded carbon. In 2024 the United States said it is not a carbon tax, but the World Trade Organization has not come to a conclusion. One aim to prevent carbon leakage ...
s. Turkey is a net exporter of wind power equipment, but a net importer of solar power equipment. Total non-hydro renewables overtook hydro in 2021. Solar is expected to overtake wind before 2030.
The Energy Minister said in 2023 that by 2035 renewables would supply almost a quarter of the nation’s energy. According to one study, by massively increasing
solar power
Solar power, also known as solar electricity, is the conversion of energy from sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics (PV) or indirectly using concentrated solar power. Solar panels use the photovoltaic effect to c ...
in the south and
wind power
Wind power is the use of wind energy to generate useful work. Historically, wind power was used by sails, windmills and windpumps, but today it is mostly used to generate electricity. This article deals only with wind power for electricity ge ...
in the west the country's entire electricity demand could be met from renewable sources.
A 2022 simulation by Shura of typical spring 2030 generation shows that wind and nuclear could provide baseload, and solar much of daytime demand, reserving dammed hydro for evening flexibility.
Other experts believe that
nuclear power
Nuclear power is the use of nuclear reactions to produce electricity. Nuclear power can be obtained from nuclear fission, nuclear decay and nuclear fusion reactions. Presently, the vast majority of electricity from nuclear power is produced by ...
will keep the grid stable from fluctuations in
variable renewable energy
Variable renewable energy (VRE) or intermittent renewable energy sources (IRES) are renewable energy sources that are not dispatchable due to their fluctuating nature, such as wind power and solar power, as opposed to controllable renewable ener ...
,
while some state that more geothermal
baseload
The base load (also baseload) is the minimum level of demand on an electrical grid over a span of time, for example, one week. This demand can be met by unvarying power plants or dispatchable generation, depending on which approach has the best mi ...
capacity should be added.
Think tank
Ember
An ember, also called a hot coal, is a hot lump of smouldering solid fuel, typically glowing, composed of greatly heated wood, coal, or other carbon-based material. Embers (hot coals) can exist within, remain after, or sometimes precede, a ...
said in 2022 that Turkey needs to expand renewables at least twice as fast, to decarbonize the electricity sector and lower import bills. In 2023 they said that solar power rollout should be accelerated in the sunny south. Shura states that renewables could generate 70% of electricity by 2030, with coal reduced to 5%.
Many new 400kV transmission lines are planned to be built by 2030.
The national energy plan published in 2022 expects an increase in the share of renewable energy and intermittent renewable energy sources in electricity generation to 55% and 34% respectively by 2035.
According to the plan by 2035 installed capacity will increase to: 30 GW (25 GW onshore, 5 GW offshore) of wind power, and 53 GW of solar power. The plan is for installed capacity to increase to 35 GW of hydroelectricity and 5 GW total of geothermal and biomass power.
The plan expects the share of renewable energy in primary energy consumption, which was 16.7% in 2020, to increase to 23.7% by 2035.
The plan expects the share of electricity from
variable renewable energy
Variable renewable energy (VRE) or intermittent renewable energy sources (IRES) are renewable energy sources that are not dispatchable due to their fluctuating nature, such as wind power and solar power, as opposed to controllable renewable ener ...
, which was 12% in 2020, to increase gradually to 34% by 2035.
Economics
The fuel-only cost of fossil gas-fired power in early 2022 was 128 USD/MWh,
which was more than double that of the
levelized cost of electricity of new
utility scale solar PV and new onshore wind.
Renewable energy is competitive with domestic coal.
However in 2022 wind and solar remained more expensive than
energy efficiency measures, which were estimated at 14 USD/MWh.
There are
feed-in-tariffs in
lira
Lira is the name of several currency units. It is the current Turkish lira, currency of Turkey and also the local name of the Lebanese pound, currencies of Lebanon and of Syrian pound, Syria. It is also the name of several former currencies, ...
(but partly adjusted to USD) per kWh depending on the source and there may be extra if local components are used.
Geothermal and pumped storage get 15 years of this YEKDEM. Otherwise tariffs apply for 10 years and any local bonus for 5 years, and are revised quarterly.
Although feed-in tariffs continue to 2030 investors are concerned about the
volatility of the lira.
Following the invasion of Ukraine in early 2022 the cost of imported fuel soared and the
Energy Market Regulatory Authority (EMRA) was empowered to intervene in the electricity market.
According to the
Industrial Development Bank of Turkey, the support fee based on source model depends on transferring money from low-cost solar, wind and hydroelectric power plants to those with high operating expenses, examples of which include imported coal and natural gas.
Despite some renewables generators calling for it to be scrapped, it was extended into 2023.
This applies to both the market exchange price and fixed prices determined by bilateral agreements.
EMRA determining such fees has been criticised by some lawyers, who say that the fees are like a tax on low cost generators, and that according to the constitution taxes can only be imposed by parliament.
The
World Bank
The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans and Grant (money), grants to the governments of Least developed countries, low- and Developing country, middle-income countries for the purposes of economic development ...
said in 2022 that "the war in Ukraine and attendant energy supply disruptions and price increases highlight risks for countries like Türkiye that rely on fossil fuel imports, underscoring the urgency of climate action in support of energy security and affordability" and proposed a plan to integrate development with action on climate change.
Earlier reports from other organisations say that such an expansion of renewables benefits employment, industrial production, and balance of trade.
A 2022 study by
Ember
An ember, also called a hot coal, is a hot lump of smouldering solid fuel, typically glowing, composed of greatly heated wood, coal, or other carbon-based material. Embers (hot coals) can exist within, remain after, or sometimes precede, a ...
in advance of the Energy Ministry long-term plan suggested that dependence on imported energy could be reduced from a half to a quarter by 2030 by energy efficiency and increasing solar capacity to 40 GW and wind to 30 GW: this would mean the increase in wind and solar accelerating from 1 GW a year each to 2.5 and 4 GW respectively. They said that domestic solar manufacturing capacity could achieve 8 GW a year. The report was based on 4 modeling studies by: the Istanbul Policy Center, the World Bank’s Climate and Development report, a report from Europe Beyond Coal and other local environmental organizations, and analysis from Turkish energy transition think tank Shura.
In 2023 Shura estimated that doubling the capacity of wind and solar compared to 2022 would cut the wholesale cost of electricity by a quarter.
If more renewable energy is generated it may be possible to export
green hydrogen to the EU.
Another example of such “sector coupling” would be using excess renewable energy for desalination.
Eser Özdil at the
Atlantic Council
The Atlantic Council is an American think tank in the field of international affairs, favoring Atlanticism, founded in 1961. It manages sixteen regional centers and functional programs related to international security and global economic prosp ...
said in 2022 that interconnectors with the EU need to be greatly increased, and suggested joint electricity projects with
Balkan
The Balkans ( , ), corresponding partially with the Balkan Peninsula, is a geographical area in southeastern Europe with various geographical and historical definitions. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch throug ...
companies.
A green tariff has been offered since 2021. Companies with a lot of renewables include
the state electricity generation company (mainly hydro),
Aydem,
and
Kalyon.
Increasing export of electricity to the EU has also been proposed but analyst Kadri Taştan pointed out that this depends on "reliable and solid political relations between the two and an ambitious environmental policy in Turkey".
Using renewable electricity to produce
green hydrogen for export has also been suggested, but would require substantial investment.
The 60% import tariff on Chinese components has been criticised as favouring large companies over SMEs. As of 2023 Chinese companies consider Turkey high risk, in part due to unpredictable and changeable regulations.
SMEs buy solar parts from Malaysia due to the trade agreement.
Regulations
Unlicensed (about 2% of supply and over 90% of which is solar)
generators must apply to distribution companies or industrial park license holders in their region for technical checks and approval.
Production could increase far more quickly if
subsidies for coal were abolished
and the auction system was improved.
In 2022 the Unlicensed Electricity Generation Regulation was amended so that the amount of surplus energy that can be sold may not exceed the total consumption of the consumer the previous year: the excess goes to the Renewable Energy Resources Support Mechanism.
This regulation might be
unconstitutional
In constitutional law, constitutionality is said to be the condition of acting in accordance with an applicable constitution; "Webster On Line" the status of a law, a procedure, or an act's accordance with the laws or set forth in the applic ...
by being retrospective.
Politics
The Turkish Electricity Industry Association has suggested a taxonomy, including investments in renewable energy, based on the
EU taxonomy for sustainable activities. Some academics say that governments have not allowed civil society enough say on
energy policy
Energy policies are the government's strategies and decisions regarding the Energy production, production, Energy distribution, distribution, and World energy supply and consumption, consumption of energy within a specific jurisdiction. Energy ...
, leading to protests against building hydropower, geothermal power, and at least one wind farm.
In 2022 the EU complained about local content requirements, saying that they did not meet
World Trade Organization
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an intergovernmental organization headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland that regulates and facilitates international trade. Governments use the organization to establish, revise, and enforce the rules that g ...
and
European Union–Turkey Customs Union
The European Union–Turkey Customs Union is a trade agreement between the European Union (EU) and Turkey. The agreement came into effect on 31 December 1995, following a 6 March 1995 decision of the European Community–Turkey Associatio ...
rules. Think tank Shura says that renewables could replace
coal power
Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock, formed as rock strata called coal seams. Coal is mostly carbon with variable amounts of other Chemical element, elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen.
Coal i ...
by 2035.
Health
Geothermal power in Turkey is used mainly for heating, and
solar water heating
Solar water heating (SWH) is water heating, heating water by sunlight, using a solar thermal collector. A variety of configurations are available at varying cost to provide solutions in different climates and latitudes. SWHs are widely used for ...
is also widespread. However, burning wood for home heating (classified as "traditional biomass" within academic reports) has been causing indoor air pollution throughout history, and still poses such problems.
Possible health benefits of expanding modern renewable energy have been estimated at US$800 million a year.
Health benefits could be greater if renewables succeeded in phasing out coal by 2030.
History
Neolithic
The Neolithic or New Stone Age (from Ancient Greek, Greek 'new' and 'stone') is an archaeological period, the final division of the Stone Age in Mesopotamia, Asia, Europe and Africa (c. 10,000 BCE to c. 2,000 BCE). It saw the Neolithic Revo ...
people in the
Fertile Crescent
The Fertile Crescent () is a crescent-shaped region in the Middle East, spanning modern-day Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, and Syria, together with northern Kuwait, south-eastern Turkey, and western Iran. Some authors also include ...
burnt
dung. The use of wood as "traditional biomass" in pre-republican times particularly affected
Turkish forests in central and southeast Anatolia, whereas forests in coastal regions proved somewhat more renewable because these regions receive more precipitation. Due to deforestation in arid regions, poor communities continued to burn dry dung in some remote villages into the late 20th century. In the early 21st century wood was the major source of energy in rural areas.
In late 20th century, biogas became the focus of much research.
The first residential heat pump was installed at the turn of the century.
Geothermal heat and solar heat were developed early.
Hydropower was expanded for many decades with geothermal, wind and solar electricity following. Although there has been some academic research on
solar houses since the 1970s this has been criticised as insufficient given the importance of the
construction industry
Construction are processes involved in delivering buildings, infrastructure, industrial facilities, and associated activities through to the end of their life. It typically starts with planning, financing, and design that continues until the ...
.
See also
*
Energy conservation in Turkey
*
Greenhouse gas emissions by Turkey
Notes
References
Further reading
*
External links
SHURA Energy Transition CenterÇevreci Enerji Derneği(Environmental energy society - in Turkish)
{{Renewable energy by country