Releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones are
hormone
A hormone (from the Ancient Greek, Greek participle , "setting in motion") is a class of cell signaling, signaling molecules in multicellular organisms that are sent to distant organs or tissues by complex biological processes to regulate physio ...
s whose main purpose is to control the release of other hormones, either by stimulating or inhibiting their release. They are also called liberins () and statins () (respectively), or releasing factors and inhibiting factors. The principal examples are
hypothalamic-pituitary hormones that can be classified from several viewpoints: they are hypothalamic hormones (originating in the
hypothalamus
The hypothalamus (: hypothalami; ) is a small part of the vertebrate brain that contains a number of nucleus (neuroanatomy), nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions is to link the nervous system to the endocrin ...
), they are hypophysiotropic hormones (affecting the hypophysis, that is, the
pituitary gland
The pituitary gland or hypophysis is an endocrine gland in vertebrates. In humans, the pituitary gland is located at the base of the human brain, brain, protruding off the bottom of the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland and the hypothalamus contr ...
), and they are
tropic hormone
Tropic hormones are hormones that have other endocrine glands as their target. Most tropic hormones are produced and secreted by the anterior pituitary. The hypothalamus secretes tropic hormones that target the anterior pituitary, and the thyroid ...
s (having other
endocrine gland
The endocrine system is a network of glands and organs located throughout the body. Along with the nervous system, it makes the neuroendocrine system, which controls and regulates many of the body's functions. Endocrine glands are ductless gland ...
s as their target).
For example,
thyrotropin-releasing hormone
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) is a hypophysiotropic hormone produced by neurons in the hypothalamus that stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) as well as prolactin from the anterior pituitary.
TRH has been used ...
(TRH) is released from the hypothalamus in response to low levels of secretion of
thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from the pituitary gland. The TSH in turn is under feedback control by the
thyroid
The thyroid, or thyroid gland, is an endocrine gland in vertebrates. In humans, it is a butterfly-shaped gland located in the neck below the Adam's apple. It consists of two connected lobes. The lower two thirds of the lobes are connected by ...
hormones
T4 and
T3. When the level of TSH is too high, they feed back on the brain to shut down the secretion of TRH. Synthetic TRH is also used by physicians as a test of TSH reserve in the pituitary gland as it should stimulate the release of TSH and
prolactin
Prolactin (PRL), also known as lactotropin and mammotropin, is a protein best known for its role in enabling mammals to produce milk. It is influential in over 300 separate processes in various vertebrates, including humans. Prolactin is secr ...
from this gland.
The main releasing hormones are as follows:
* The hypothalamus uses
thyrotropin-releasing hormone
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) is a hypophysiotropic hormone produced by neurons in the hypothalamus that stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) as well as prolactin from the anterior pituitary.
TRH has been used ...
(TRH or thyroliberin) to tell the pituitary to release
thyrotropin.
* The hypothalamus uses
corticotropin-releasing hormone
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) (also known as corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) or corticoliberin; corticotropin may also be spelled corticotrophin) is a peptide hormone involved in stress responses. It is a releasing hormone that b ...
(CRH or corticoliberin) to tell the pituitary to release
corticotropin
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH; also adrenocorticotropin, corticotropin) is a polypeptide tropic hormone produced by and secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. It is also used as a medication and diagnostic agent. ACTH is an important c ...
.
* The hypothalamus uses
gonadotropin-releasing hormone
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is a releasing hormone responsible for the release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) from the anterior pituitary. GnRH is a tropic peptide hormone synthesized and rele ...
(GnRH or gonadoliberin) to tell the pituitary to release
gonadotropin
Gonadotropins are glycoprotein hormones secreted by gonadotropic cells of the anterior pituitary of vertebrates. They are central to the complex endocrine system that regulates normal growth, sexual development, and reproductive function. T ...
.
* The hypothalamus uses
growth hormone–releasing hormone
Growth hormone–releasing hormone (GHRH), also known as somatocrinin among other names in its endogenous form and as somatorelin (INN) in its pharmaceutical form, is a releasing hormone of growth hormone (GH). It is a 44-amino acid peptide hor ...
(GHRH or somatoliberin) to tell the pituitary to release
somatotropin.
The main release-inhibiting hormones or inhibiting hormones are as follows:
* The hypothalamus uses
somatostatin
Somatostatin, also known as growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH) or by #Nomenclature, several other names, is a peptide hormone that regulates the endocrine system and affects neurotransmission and cell proliferation via interaction with G ...
to tell the pituitary to inhibit
somatotropin and to tell the gastrointestinal tract to inhibit various
gastrointestinal hormone
The gastrointestinal hormones (or gut hormones) constitute a group of hormones secreted by enteroendocrine cells in the stomach, pancreas, and small intestine that control various functions of the digestive organs. Later studies showed that most ...
s.
There are various other inhibiting factors that also have tropic endocrine inhibition activity. Such activity is only one of many functions that they have (such as
neurotransmitter
A neurotransmitter is a signaling molecule secreted by a neuron to affect another cell across a Chemical synapse, synapse. The cell receiving the signal, or target cell, may be another neuron, but could also be a gland or muscle cell.
Neurotra ...
and
receptor antagonist
A receptor antagonist is a type of receptor ligand or drug that blocks or dampens a biological response by binding to and blocking a receptor rather than activating it like an agonist. Antagonist drugs interfere in the natural operation of rec ...
roles), and they are not always called hormones, although many are
neuropeptide
Neuropeptides are chemical messengers made up of small chains of amino acids that are synthesized and released by neurons. Neuropeptides typically bind to G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) to modulate neural activity and other tissues like the ...
s or
neurosteroid
Neurosteroids, also known as neuroactive steroids, are endogenous or exogenous steroids that rapidly alter neuronal excitability through interaction with ligand-gated ion channels and other cell surface receptors. The term ''neurosteroid'' was coi ...
s. They include the following:
* The hypothalamus uses
dopamine
Dopamine (DA, a contraction of 3,4-dihydroxyphenethylamine) is a neuromodulatory molecule that plays several important roles in cells. It is an organic chemical of the catecholamine and phenethylamine families. It is an amine synthesized ...
as a prolactostatin to tell the pituitary to inhibit
prolactin
Prolactin (PRL), also known as lactotropin and mammotropin, is a protein best known for its role in enabling mammals to produce milk. It is influential in over 300 separate processes in various vertebrates, including humans. Prolactin is secr ...
; it is also created elsewhere in the brain and the
adrenal cortex
The adrenal cortex is the outer region and also the largest part of the adrenal gland. It is divided into three separate zones: zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata and zona reticularis. Each zone is responsible for producing specific hormones. I ...
as a
neurotransmitter
A neurotransmitter is a signaling molecule secreted by a neuron to affect another cell across a Chemical synapse, synapse. The cell receiving the signal, or target cell, may be another neuron, but could also be a gland or muscle cell.
Neurotra ...
to affect many other systems.
* The hypothalamus uses
RFRP-3 in mammals or
GnIH in avian species to inhibit GnRH.
* The hypothalamus uses
follistatin
Follistatin, also known as activin-bindings protein, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''FST'' gene. Follistatin is an autocrine glycoprotein that is expressed in nearly all tissues of higher animals.
Its primary function is the b ...
to tell the pituitary to inhibit
follicle-stimulating hormone
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is a gonadotropin, a glycoprotein polypeptide hormone. FSH is synthesized and secreted by the gonadotropic cells of the anterior pituitary gland and regulates the development, growth, puberty, pubertal maturat ...
; it also has many other systemic effects.
*
Myocyte
A muscle cell, also known as a myocyte, is a mature contractile Cell (biology), cell in the muscle of an animal. In humans and other vertebrates there are three types: skeletal muscle, skeletal, smooth muscle, smooth, and Cardiac muscle, cardiac ...
s use
myostatin
Myostatin (also known as growth differentiation factor 8, abbreviated GDF8) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''MSTN'' gene. Myostatin is a myokine that is produced and released by myocytes and acts on muscle cells to inhibit muscle ...
to tell each other to inhibit
myogenesis
Myogenesis is the formation of skeletal muscle, skeletal muscular tissue, particularly during embryonic development.
Skeletal muscle#Skeletal muscle cells, Muscle fibers generally form through the fusion of precursor cell, precursor myoblasts in ...
.
*
Melanocyte-inhibiting factor (melanostatin) inhibits release of other neuropeptides such as
alpha-MSH and also has many other functions.
* There is a
neuropeptide called cortistatin and a class of steroidal
cortistatins.
Examples of releasing and inhibiting hormones for exocrine hormones are
gastrin-releasing peptide
Gastrin-releasing peptide GRP, is a neuropeptide, a regulatory molecule encoded in the human by the ''GRP'' gene. GRP has been implicated in a number of physiological and pathophysiological processes. Most notably, GRP stimulates the release of g ...
(GRP) and
gastric inhibitory polypeptide
Gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP), also known as glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide, is an inhibiting hormone of the secretin family of hormones. While it is a weak inhibitor of gastric acid secretion, its main role, being an incr ...
(GIP), which regulate
gastrin
Gastrin is a peptide hormone that stimulates secretion of gastric acid (HCl) by the parietal cells of the stomach and aids in gastric motility. It is released by G cells in the pyloric antrum of the stomach, duodenum, and the pancreas.
...
production.
Mechanism
Releasing hormones increase (or, in case of inhibitory factors, decrease) the intracellular concentration of calcium (Ca
2+), resulting in
vesicle fusion of the respective primary hormone.
For GnRH, TRH and GHRH the increase in Ca
2+ is achieved by the releasing hormone coupling and activating
G protein coupled receptors
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), also known as seven-(pass)-transmembrane domain receptors, 7TM receptors, heptahelical receptors, serpentine receptors, and G protein-linked receptors (GPLR), form a large group of evolutionarily related ...
coupled to the
Gq alpha subunit, activating the
IP3/DAG pathway to increase Ca
2+.
[ ] For GHRH, however, this is a minor pathway, the main one being the
cAMP dependent pathway.
[ ]
Notable researchers
Roger Guillemin
Roger Charles Louis Guillemin (; January 11, 1924 – February 21, 2024) was a French-American neuroscientist. He received the National Medal of Science in 1976, and the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1977 for ...
and
Andrew W. Schally were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine in 1977 for their contributions to understanding "the peptide hormone production of the brain"; these scientists independently first isolated TRH and GnRH and then identified their
structures
A structure is an arrangement and organization of interrelated elements in a material object or system, or the object or system so organized. Material structures include man-made objects such as buildings and machines and natural objects such as ...
.
See also
*
Neuroendocrinology
Neuroendocrinology is the branch of biology (specifically of physiology) which studies the interaction between the nervous system and the endocrine system; i.e. how the brain regulates the hormonal activity in the body. The nervous and endocrine ...
References
{{reflist
Hormones
Neuroendocrinology