The Reform Acts (or Reform Bills, before they were passed) are

legislation Legislation is the process or result of enrolling, enacting, or promulgating laws by a legislature, parliament, or analogous governing body. Before an item of legislation becomes law it may be known as a bill, and may be broadly referred ...

enacted in the

United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Northwestern Europe, off the coast of European mainland, the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...

in the 19th and 20th century to enfranchise new groups of voters and to redistribute seats in the

House of Commons The House of Commons is the name for the elected lower house of the Bicameralism, bicameral parliaments of the United Kingdom and Canada. In both of these countries, the Commons holds much more legislative power than the nominally upper house of ...

of the

Parliament of the United Kingdom The Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the supreme legislative body of the United Kingdom, and may also legislate for the Crown Dependencies and the British Overseas Territories. It meets at the Palace ...

. When

short title In certain jurisdictions, including the United Kingdom and other Westminster system, Westminster-influenced jurisdictions (such as Canada or Australia), as well as the United States and the Philippines, primary legislation has both a short title an ...

s were introduced for these acts, they were usually Representation of the People Act. These began with the

Reform Act 1832 The Representation of the People Act 1832 (also known as the Reform Act 1832, Great Reform Act or First Reform Act) was an act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom (indexed as 2 & 3 Will. 4. c. 45), enacted by the Whig government of Pri ...

Reform Act 1867 The Representation of the People Act 1867 ( 30 & 31 Vict. c. 102), known as the Reform Act 1867 or the Second Reform Act, is an act of the British Parliament that enfranchised part of the urban male working class in England and Wales for the ...

, and the Representation of the People Act 1884, to increase the electorate for the House of Commons and remove certain inequalities in representation. The bill of 1832 disfranchised many

borough A borough is an administrative division in various English language, English-speaking countries. In principle, the term ''borough'' designates a self-governing walled town, although in practice, official use of the term varies widely. History ...

s which enjoyed undue representation and increased that of the large towns, at the same time extending the franchise. It was put through Parliament by the Whigs. The bill of 1867 was passed by the

Conservatives Conservatism is a cultural, social, and political philosophy and ideology that seeks to promote and preserve traditional institutions, customs, and values. The central tenets of conservatism may vary in relation to the culture and civilizati ...

under the urging of the Liberals, while that of 1882 was introduced by the Liberals and passed in 1884. These latter two bills provided for a more democratic representation. Following the

First World War World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...

, the Reform Act 1918 was enacted with cross-party unanimity. It enfranchised all men over the age of 21 and women over the age of 30. Ten years later, the Reform Act 1928, passed by the Conservatives, resulted in

universal suffrage Universal suffrage or universal franchise ensures the right to vote for as many people bound by a government's laws as possible, as supported by the " one person, one vote" principle. For many, the term universal suffrage assumes the exclusion ...

with a

voting age A legal voting age is the minimum age that a person is allowed to Voting, vote in a democracy, democratic process. For General election, general elections around the world, the right to vote is restricted to adults, and most nations use 18 year ...

of 21. In 1969, the United Kingdom became the first major democratic country to lower its age of franchise to 18 in the Reform Act 1969 passed by the Labour government. Internationally, the Parliament of the United Kingdom and its

Westminster system The Westminster system, or Westminster model, is a type of parliamentary system, parliamentary government that incorporates a series of Parliamentary procedure, procedures for operating a legislature, first developed in England. Key aspects of ...

played a "vanguard role" with worldwide influence on the spread of democracy, thus it is often known as " The mother of parliaments".

Background

In the

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the union of the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland into one sovereign state, established by the Acts of Union 1800, Acts of Union in 1801. It continued in this form until ...

, before 1832, fewer than one adult male in ten was eligible to vote in parliamentary elections. Moreover, the franchise varied a great deal between England (which included Wales), where it was wider, and Scotland and Ireland, where it was narrower. A few boroughs gave the vote to all male householders, but many parliamentary seats were under the control of a small group or sometimes a single rich aristocrat. Reforms had been proposed in the 18th century, both by radicals such as

John Wilkes John Wilkes (17 October 1725 – 26 December 1797) was an English Radicalism (historical), radical journalist and politician, as well as a magistrate, essayist and soldier. He was first elected a Member of Parliament in 1757. In the Middlese ...

and by more conservative politicians such as

William Pitt the Younger William Pitt (28 May 1759 – 23 January 1806) was a British statesman who served as the last prime minister of Kingdom of Great Britain, Great Britain from 1783 until the Acts of Union 1800, and then first Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, p ...

. However, there was strong opposition to reform, especially after the outbreak of the French Revolution (1789–1799). The cause was continued after 1792 by the London Corresponding Society. Eventually, the parliamentary franchise was expanded and made more uniform through a series of Reform Acts beginning with the

Great Reform Act The Representation of the People Act 1832 (also known as the Reform Act 1832, Great Reform Act or First Reform Act) was an act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom (indexed as 2 & 3 Will. 4. c. 45), enacted by the Whig government of Pri ...

in 1832. These acts extended voting rights to previously disenfranchised citizens. Sources refer to up to six "Reform Acts", although the earlier three in 1832, 1867/68 and 1884, are better known by this name. Some other acts related to electoral matters also became known as Reform Acts. The following Acts of Parliament are known as Reform Acts: *

(often called the "Great Reform Act" or "First Reform Act"), which applied to England and Wales and gave representation to previously underrepresented urban areas and extended the qualifications for voting. ** Scottish Reform Act 1832, a similar reform applying to Scotland. ** Irish Reform Act 1832, a similar reform applying to Ireland. *

(also called the "Second Reform Act"), which widened the franchise and adjusted representation to be more equitable. **

Representation of the People (Scotland) Act 1868 The Representation of the People (Scotland) Act 1868 ( 31 & 32 Vict. c. 48) was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It carried on from the Representation of the People Act 1867, and created seven additional Scottish seats in the Hou ...

, a similar reform applying to Scotland. **

Representation of the People (Ireland) Act 1868 The Representation of the People (Ireland) Act 1868 ( 31 & 32 Vict. c. 49) was an act of Parliament in the United Kingdom. The act did not alter the overall distribution of parliamentary seats in Ireland. It was originally proposed to merge t ...

, a similar reform applying to Ireland. *

Ballot Act 1872 The Ballot Act 1872 ( 35 & 36 Vict. c. 33) was an act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that introduced the requirement for parliamentary and local government elections in the United Kingdom to be held by secret ballot. The act abolishe ...

(sometimes called the "Reform Act 1872"), which introduced the secret ballot. *

Corrupt and Illegal Practices Prevention Act 1883 The Corrupt and Illegal Practices Prevention Act 1883 ( 46 & 47 Vict. c. 51) or the Corrupt Practices Act 1883 was an act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. It was a continuation of policy to make voters free ...

(sometimes called the "Reform Act 1883"), which introduced campaign spending limits. *

Reform Act 1884 In the United Kingdom under the premiership of William Gladstone, the Representation of the People Act 1884 ( 48 & 49 Vict. c. 3), also known informally as the Third Reform Act, and the Redistribution Act of the following year were laws whic ...

(also called the "Third Reform Act"), which allowed people in counties to vote on the same basis as those in towns. Home ownership was the only qualification. *

Redistribution of Seats Act 1885 The Redistribution of Seats Act 1885 (48 & 49 Vict. c. 23) was an Act of Parliament (United Kingdom), act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom (sometimes called the "Reform Act of 1885"). It was a piece of electoral reform legislation that r ...

(sometimes called the "Reform Act 1885"), which split most multi-member constituencies into multiple single-member ones. * Reform Act 1918 (also called the "Fourth Reform Act"), which abolished property qualifications for men and introduced limited female suffrage, for women over the age of 30. * Reform Act 1928 (also called the "Fifth Reform Act"), which widened suffrage by giving women electoral equality with men. * Reform Act 1969 (also called the "Sixth Reform Act"), which lowered the minimum voting age from 21 to 18. There are many other

electoral reform Electoral reform is a change in electoral systems that alters how public desires, usually expressed by cast votes, produce election results. Description Reforms can include changes to: * Voting systems, such as adoption of proportional represen ...

Acts that changed the

electoral system An electoral or voting system is a set of rules used to determine the results of an election. Electoral systems are used in politics to elect governments, while non-political elections may take place in business, nonprofit organizations and inf ...

in the United Kingdom. Such legislation typically used " Representation of the People Act" as the

, by which name the 1918, 1928 and other acts in the 20th century are better known. The title Representation of the People Act was adopted in other countries of, or formerly part of, the

British Empire The British Empire comprised the dominions, Crown colony, colonies, protectorates, League of Nations mandate, mandates, and other Dependent territory, territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It bega ...

through the spread of the Westminster parliamentary system. The

played a "vanguard role" with worldwide influence on the spread of democracy, thus it is often known as " the mother of parliaments".

Reform Act 1832

The Reform Act 1832 for England and Wales was the most controversial of the electoral reform acts passed by the Parliament. Similar acts were passed the same year for Scotland, and Ireland. They were put through Parliament by the Whigs. The acts reapportioned Parliament in a way fairer to the cities of the old industrial north, which had experienced tremendous growth. The act also did away with most of the "rotten" and "pocket" boroughs such as ''

Old Sarum Old Sarum, in Wiltshire, South West England, is the ruined and deserted site of the earliest settlement of Salisbury. Situated on a hill about north of modern Salisbury near the A345 road, the settlement appears in some of the earliest recor ...

'', which with only seven voters, all controlled by the local squire, was still sending two members to Parliament. This act re-apportioned representation in Parliament, thus making that body more accurately represent the citizens of the country geographically (although still with no party-proportional balance), but also gave the power of voting to those lower in the social and economic scale, for the act extended the right to vote (in the boroughs) to any long-term holders of tenements of at least £10 annual value, adding 217,000 voters to an electorate of 435,000. Annual value here refers to the income that the land could be expected to earn if let, in a year. As many as one man in five, though by some estimates still only one in seven, now had the right to vote. The agitation preceding and following the First Reform Act made many people consider fundamental issues of society and politics. The bill allowed the middle classes to share power with the upper classes; for many

conservatives Conservatism is a cultural, social, and political philosophy and ideology that seeks to promote and preserve traditional institutions, customs, and values. The central tenets of conservatism may vary in relation to the culture and civilizati ...

, this was revolutionary. Some historians argue that this transfer of power achieved in Britain and Ireland what the

French Revolution of 1848 The French Revolution of 1848 (), also known as the February Revolution (), was a period of civil unrest in France, in February 1848, that led to the collapse of the July Monarchy and the foundation of the French Second Republic. It sparked t ...

eventually achieved in France.

Charles Dickens Charles John Huffam Dickens (; 7 February 1812 – 9 June 1870) was an English novelist, journalist, short story writer and Social criticism, social critic. He created some of literature's best-known fictional characters, and is regarded by ...

observed these events at first hand as a shorthand Parliamentary reporter. The novel ''

Middlemarch ''Middlemarch, A Study of Provincial Life'' is a novel by English author George Eliot, the pen name of Mary Ann Evans. It appeared in eight installments (volumes) in 1871 and 1872. Set in Middlemarch, a fictional English Midlands town, in 1829 ...

'', by Mary Ann Evans (''

George Eliot Mary Ann Evans (22 November 1819 – 22 December 1880; alternatively Mary Anne or Marian), known by her pen name George Eliot, was an English novelist, poet, journalist, translator, and one of the leading writers of the Victorian era. She wrot ...

'') is set in the 1830s and mentions the struggle over the Reform Bills, though not as a major topic. Eliot's '' Felix Holt, the Radical'', set in 1832, is a novel explicitly about the Great Reform Act.

Reform Act 1867

The

Chartists Chartism was a working-class movement for political reform in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, United Kingdom that erupted from 1838 to 1857 and was strongest in 1839, 1842 and 1848. It took its name from the People's Charter of ...

campaigned from 1838 for a wider reform. The movement petered out in the 1850s, but achieved most of its demands in the longer run. Legislative bills were introduced by the

under the urging of the Liberals. The 1867/8 acts for England and Wales, Scotland, and Ireland extended the right to vote still further down the class ladder. In England and Wales, the reforms added just short of a million voters, including many workingmen, which doubled the electorate to almost two million. Like the Great Reform Act before it, the Second Reform Act also created major shock waves in contemporary British culture. In works such as

Matthew Arnold Matthew Arnold (24 December 1822 – 15 April 1888) was an English poet and cultural critic. He was the son of Thomas Arnold, the headmaster of Rugby School, and brother to both Tom Arnold (academic), Tom Arnold, literary professor, and Willi ...

's ''

Culture and Anarchy ''Culture and Anarchy: An Essay in Political and Social Criticism'' is a series of periodical essays by Matthew Arnold, first published in Cornhill Magazine 1867–68 and collected as a book in 1869. The preface was added in 1869.Robert H. Super ...

'' and

John Ruskin John Ruskin (8 February 1819 20 January 1900) was an English polymath a writer, lecturer, art historian, art critic, draughtsman and philanthropist of the Victorian era. He wrote on subjects as varied as art, architecture, Critique of politic ...

's '' The Crown of Wild Olive'', contemporary authors debated whether the shift of power would create democracy that would, in turn, destroy high culture.

Reform Act 1884

A further Reform Bill was introduced in 1882 by the Liberals. The Conservative-dominated Lords passed it in 1884, opening the way for its royal proclamation, becoming the Third Reform Act. It was the first electoral reform act to apply to the United Kingdom as a whole. Only with this act did a majority of adult males gain the right to vote in parliamentary elections. Along with the Redistribution Act 1885, this tripled the electorate again, giving the vote to most agricultural labourers. (Women were still barred from voting.)

1918, 1928 and 1969 Reform Acts

By the end of the 19th century and in they early 20th century, voting was coming to be regarded as a right rather than the property of the privileged but the

delayed further reforms. After the War, women were granted voting rights with cross-party unanimity in the Act of 1918, the Fourth Reform Act, which enfranchised all men aged over 21 and women over 30. This last piece of gender discrimination was eliminated 10 years later by the

Equal Franchise Act 1928 The Representation of the People (Equal Franchise) Act 1928 (18 & 19 Geo. 5. c. 12) was an Act of Parliament (UK), act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. This act expanded on the Representation of the People Act 1918 (7 & 8 Geo. 5. c. 64) ...

, the Fifth Reform Act, passed by the Conservatives. The

was lowered in 1969 by the Labour government in the Sixth Reform Act, making Britain the first major democratic nation to extend voting rights to all adults aged 18 or over.

Modern usage

The periodic redrawing of constituency boundaries is now dealt with by a permanent Boundary Commission in each part of the United Kingdom, rather than a Reform Act. Some people in Britain, mostly associated with the Liberal Democrats political party, have called for a new "Great Reform Act" to introduce electoral changes they favour. These would include lowering the minimum voting age to 16 and introducing

proportional representation Proportional representation (PR) refers to any electoral system under which subgroups of an electorate are reflected proportionately in the elected body. The concept applies mainly to political divisions (Political party, political parties) amon ...

, which are also supported by the

Green Party of England and Wales The Green Party of England and Wales (GPEW; ), often known simply as the Green Party or the Greens, is a Green politics, green, Left-wing politics, left-wing political party in England and Wales. Since October 2021, Carla Denyer and Adrian Ram ...

Notes

References

External links

on the Victorian Web

an

{{UK electoral reform, state=expanded Laws in the United Kingdom Legal history of the United Kingdom Political history of the United Kingdom Constitution of the United Kingdom Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom Constitutional laws of the United Kingdom Electoral reform in the United Kingdom Democratization