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Blood rain or red rain is a phenomenon in which blood is perceived to fall from the sky in the form of rain. Cases have been recorded since
Homer Homer (; , ; possibly born ) was an Ancient Greece, Ancient Greek poet who is credited as the author of the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'', two epic poems that are foundational works of ancient Greek literature. Despite doubts about his autho ...
's ''
Iliad The ''Iliad'' (; , ; ) is one of two major Ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is one of the oldest extant works of literature still widely read by modern audiences. As with the ''Odyssey'', the poem is divided into 24 books and ...
'', composed approximately 8th century BC, and are widespread. Before the 17th century it was generally believed that the rain was actually blood. Literature mirrors cult practice, in which the appearance of blood rain was considered a bad
omen An omen (also called ''portent'') is a phenomenon that is believed to foretell the future, often signifying the advent of change. It was commonly believed in ancient history, and still believed by some today, that omens bring divine messages ...
. It was used as a tool foreshadowing events, but while some of these may be literary devices, some occurrences are historic. There is now a scientific consensus that the blood rain phenomenon is caused by aerial spores of green microalgae ''Trentepohlia annulata''. Recorded instances of blood rain usually cover small areas. The duration can vary, sometimes lasting only a short time, others several days. By the 17th century, explanations for the phenomenon had moved away from the supernatural and attempted to provide natural reasons. In the 19th century, blood rains were scientifically examined, and theories that dust gave the water its red colour gained ground. Today, the dominant theories are that the rain is caused by red dust suspended in the water (
rain dust Rain dust or snow dust, traditionally known as muddy rain, red rain, or coloured rain, is a variety of rain (or any other form of precipitation) which contains enough mineral dust, from soils (particularly from deserts), for the dust to be visib ...
) or by the presence of micro-organisms. Alternative explanations for some historical descriptions include red
aurora An aurora ( aurorae or auroras), also commonly known as the northern lights (aurora borealis) or southern lights (aurora australis), is a natural light display in Earth's sky, predominantly observed in high-latitude regions (around the Arc ...
e being described as having the appearance of rain or blood. The phenomenon received international coverage in 2001, after red rain fell in Kerala, India, and again in 2012.


History and use in literature

Occurrences of blood rain throughout history are distributed from the ancient, to the modern day. The earliest literary instance is in
Homer Homer (; , ; possibly born ) was an Ancient Greece, Ancient Greek poet who is credited as the author of the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'', two epic poems that are foundational works of ancient Greek literature. Despite doubts about his autho ...
's ''Iliad'', in which
Zeus Zeus (, ) is the chief deity of the List of Greek deities, Greek pantheon. He is a sky father, sky and thunder god in ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology, mythology, who rules as king of the gods on Mount Olympus. Zeus is the child ...
twice caused a rain of blood, on one occasion to warn of slaughter in a battle. The same portent occurs in the work of the poet
Hesiod Hesiod ( or ; ''Hēsíodos''; ) was an ancient Greece, Greek poet generally thought to have been active between 750 and 650 BC, around the same time as Homer.M. L. West, ''Hesiod: Theogony'', Oxford University Press (1966), p. 40.Jasper Gr ...
, writing around 700 BC; the author John Tatlock suggests that Hesiod's story may have been influenced by that recorded in the Iliad. The first-century Greek biographer
Plutarch Plutarch (; , ''Ploútarchos'', ; – 120s) was a Greek Middle Platonist philosopher, historian, biographer, essayist, and priest at the Temple of Apollo (Delphi), Temple of Apollo in Delphi. He is known primarily for his ''Parallel Lives'', ...
also recounts a tradition of a rain of blood during the reign of
Romulus Romulus (, ) was the legendary founder and first king of Rome. Various traditions attribute the establishment of many of Rome's oldest legal, political, religious, and social institutions to Romulus and his contemporaries. Although many of th ...
, founder of Rome. Roman authors
Livy Titus Livius (; 59 BC – AD 17), known in English as Livy ( ), was a Roman historian. He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, titled , covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditional founding i ...
and Pliny record some later cases of blood rain, with Livy describing it as a bad portent. Unusual events such as a rain of blood were considered bad omens in Antiquity, and this belief persisted through the
Middle Ages In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the 5th to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and ...
and well into the
Early modern period The early modern period is a Periodization, historical period that is defined either as part of or as immediately preceding the modern period, with divisions based primarily on the history of Europe and the broader concept of modernity. There i ...
. Throughout northern and western Europe there are many cases of rains of blood which were used by contemporary writers to augur bad events: the ''
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle The ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' is a collection of annals in Old English, chronicling the history of the Anglo-Saxons. The original manuscript of the ''Chronicle'' was created late in the ninth century, probably in Wessex, during the reign of ...
'' records, "there was a bloody rain in Britain. And milk and butter were turned to blood. And Lothere, king of Kent, died". Tatlock suggests that although the ''Chronicle'' was written long after the events, it may have basis in historical truth. He notes that although the rain may seem to be foreshadowing the death of Lothere, medieval chroniclers often noted unusual occurrences in their works "merely for their general interest".
Gregory of Tours Gregory of Tours (born ; 30 November – 17 November 594 AD) was a Gallo-Roman historian and Bishop of Tours during the Merovingian period and is known as the "father of French history". He was a prelate in the Merovingian kingdom, encom ...
records that in 582 "In the territory of Paris there rained real blood from the clouds, falling upon the garments of many men, who were so stained and spotted that they stripped themselves of their own clothing in horror". Although the work of
Geoffrey of Monmouth Geoffrey of Monmouth (; ; ) was a Catholic cleric from Monmouth, Wales, and one of the major figures in the development of British historiography and the popularity of tales of King Arthur. He is best known for his chronicle '' The History of ...
, a 12th-century writer who popularised the legends of
King Arthur According to legends, King Arthur (; ; ; ) was a king of Great Britain, Britain. He is a folk hero and a central figure in the medieval literary tradition known as the Matter of Britain. In Wales, Welsh sources, Arthur is portrayed as a le ...
, is regarded as "fantastical" rather than reliable, he too notes the occurrence of blood rain, in the reign of
Rivallo Rivallo () was a legendary king of the Britons as accounted by Geoffrey of Monmouth. He came to power in 817BC. He was the son of King Cunedagius Cunedagius ( Latinized form; ) was a legendary king of the Britons, as recounted by Geoffrey of ...
. This event was further expanded on by
Layamon Layamon or Laghamon (, ; ) – spelled Laȝamon or Laȝamonn in his time, occasionally written Lawman – was an English poet of the late 12th/early 13th century and author of the ''Brut'', a notable work that was the first to present the legend ...
in his poem '' Brut'' (written around 1190), who described how blood rain was one of several portents, and which itself led to destruction: Many works which record occurrences of blood rain, such as that of Layamon, were written significantly after the event was supposed to have taken place. The 14th-century monk
Ralph Higden Ranulf Higden or Higdon (–1363 or 1364) was an English chronicler and a Benedictine monk who wrote the ''Polychronicon'', a Late Medieval magnum opus. Higden resided at the monastery of St. Werburgh in Chester after taking his monastic vow a ...
in his work, the '' Polchronicon'', recounts that in 787 there was a rain of blood, perhaps intended by the author as an indication of the coming
Viking Vikings were seafaring people originally from Scandinavia (present-day Denmark, Norway, and Sweden), who from the late 8th to the late 11th centuries raided, pirated, traded, and settled throughout parts of Europe.Roesdahl, pp. 9 ...
invasion. Written in the 12th century, the ''
Book of Leinster The Book of Leinster ( , LL) is a medieval Irish manuscript compiled and now kept in Trinity College Dublin. It was formerly known as the ''Lebor na Nuachongbála'' ("Book of Nuachongbáil"), a monastic site known today as Oughaval. In 2023 ...
'' records many sensational events, including showers of silver; it records a shower of blood in 868. In the work of
William of Newburgh William of Newburgh or Newbury (, ''Wilhelmus Neubrigensis'', or ''Willelmus de Novoburgo''. 1136 – 1198), also known as William Parvus, was a 12th-century English historian and Augustinian canon of Anglo-Saxon descent from Bridlington, Eas ...
, a rain of blood proves the drive and determination of
Richard the Lionheart Richard is a male given name. It originates, via Old French, from compound of the words descending from Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic ''*rīk-'' 'ruler, leader, king' and ''*hardu-'' 'strong, brave, hardy', and it therefore means 'st ...
. According to
William of Newburgh William of Newburgh or Newbury (, ''Wilhelmus Neubrigensis'', or ''Willelmus de Novoburgo''. 1136 – 1198), also known as William Parvus, was a 12th-century English historian and Augustinian canon of Anglo-Saxon descent from Bridlington, Eas ...
, a contemporary chronicler, in May 1198 Richard and the labourers working on the castle were drenched in a "rain of blood". While some of his advisers thought the rain was an evil omen, Richard was undeterred: In Germany, a shower of blood was one of several portents for the arrival of the
Black Death The Black Death was a bubonic plague pandemic that occurred in Europe from 1346 to 1353. It was one of the list of epidemics, most fatal pandemics in human history; as many as people perished, perhaps 50% of Europe's 14th century population. ...
in 1348–1349. The phenomenon gained exposure to a wide audience in the 16th century, during the
Renaissance The Renaissance ( , ) is a Periodization, period of history and a European cultural movement covering the 15th and 16th centuries. It marked the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and was characterized by an effort to revive and sur ...
, when it was used as an example of the power of God; a form of literature using prodigies such as blood rain as cautions against immorality proliferated across Europe having originated in Italy. In Germany, such works were particularly popular amongst
Protestant Protestantism is a branch of Christianity that emphasizes Justification (theology), justification of sinners Sola fide, through faith alone, the teaching that Salvation in Christianity, salvation comes by unmerited Grace in Christianity, divin ...
s. Although unusual events such as rains of blood were still treated with superstition, often as demonstrations of godly power,
Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc (1 December 1580 – 24 June 1637), often known simply as Peiresc, or by the Latin form of his name, Peirescius, was a French astronomer, antiquary and savant, who maintained a wide correspondence with scienti ...
(1580–1637) was one of the few who proposed natural causes; after hearing of a bloody rain in
Aix-en-Provence Aix-en-Provence, or simply Aix, is a List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, city and Communes of France, commune in southern France, about north of Marseille. A former capital of Provence, it is the Subprefectures in France, s ...
, he suggested it was caused by butterflies. Although his theory would later be rejected, he helped the likes of
Pierre Gassendi Pierre Gassendi (; also Pierre Gassend, Petrus Gassendi, Petrus Gassendus; 22 January 1592 – 24 October 1655) was a French philosopher, Catholic priest, astronomer, and mathematician. While he held a church position in south-east France, he a ...
and
René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur (; ; 28 February 1683 – 17 October 1757) was a French entomologist and writer who contributed to many different fields, especially the study of insects. He introduced the Réaumur temperature scale. Lif ...
to lay the foundations for removing superstition from explanations of the phenomenon. One of the first scientists who correctly explained this phenomenon was
Giuseppe Maria Giovene Giuseppe Maria Giovene (23 January 1753 – 2 January 1837) was an Italian archpriest, naturalist, agronomist, geologist, meteorologist, entomologist and ichthyologist. elogio-storico, pag. 9, note 8 He is best known for his studies on the "nitro ...
(1753–1837). Blood rain fell on
Apulia Apulia ( ), also known by its Italian language, Italian name Puglia (), is a Regions of Italy, region of Italy, located in the Southern Italy, southern peninsular section of the country, bordering the Adriatic Sea to the east, the Strait of Ot ...
on 7 March 1803, and it was then believed that the rain was caused by the explosion of Italy's volcanoes
Mount Vesuvius Mount Vesuvius ( ) is a Somma volcano, somma–stratovolcano located on the Gulf of Naples in Campania, Italy, about east of Naples and a short distance from the shore. It is one of several volcanoes forming the Campanian volcanic arc. Vesuv ...
or Etna, or that it was due to the transport of matter coming from the sea floor and raised by vapor. Giuseppe Maria Giovene related the phenomenon to the wind which occurred prior to the rain event, and he came to the conclusion that the sand came from Africa and that it had been pushed by the wind coming from direction south-east. elogio-storico, pag. 20 In Europe, there were fewer than 30 recorded cases all together of blood rain in the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries. There were 190 instances across the 16th and 17th centuries; there was a decline in the 17th century when only 43 were recorded, but this picked up again with 146 in the 19th century. There is little literature on the subject of blood rain, although it has gained the attention of some naturalists.


Mechanism

A 2015 study has unambiguously established that the cause of blood rain in
Kerala Kerala ( , ) is a States and union territories of India, state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile ...
was the aerial spores of green microalgae Trentepohlia. The study used
molecular phylogenetics Molecular phylogenetics () is the branch of phylogeny that analyzes genetic, hereditary molecular differences, predominantly in DNA sequences, to gain information on an organism's evolutionary relationships. From these analyses, it is possible to ...
to compare the evolution of DNA sequence of T. annulata isolated from blood rain sample with that of T. annulata from
Austria Austria, formally the Republic of Austria, is a landlocked country in Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps. It is a federation of nine Federal states of Austria, states, of which the capital Vienna is the List of largest cities in Aust ...
. Results suggest that the isolate from Kerala is, in fact, a recently introduced species from Austria. The research confirmed the likelihood that the introduction happened through clouds over the ocean, a phenomenon of intercontinental species dispersal previously reported for bacteria and fungi but not for an alga. Clouds over ocean dispersal is analogous to the intercontinental flights; spores of this alga from Europe are transported to India via clouds that drift across the
Arabian Sea The Arabian Sea () is a region of sea in the northern Indian Ocean, bounded on the west by the Arabian Peninsula, Gulf of Aden and Guardafui Channel, on the northwest by Gulf of Oman and Iran, on the north by Pakistan, on the east by India, and ...
.
Spores In biology, a spore is a unit of sexual (in fungi) or asexual reproduction that may be adapted for dispersal and for survival, often for extended periods of time, in unfavourable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles of many plant ...
might have been carried first to the clouds for its dispersal. How exactly these lower stratospheric clouds containing algal spores got in Kerala remain unknown but it might be related to the monsoon as well, as Kerala is the first state that the southwest monsoon strikes together with Sri Lanka. Again, trade winds (SE and NE) converge at a region called the
Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ , or ICZ), known by sailors as the doldrums or the calms because of its monotonous windless weather, is the area where the northeast and the southeast trade winds converge. It encircles Earth near the ...
(ITCZ), which is located close to Kerala and Sri Lanka, which might be another clue for this puzzle. Authors said their steps would be the analysis of intercontinental clouds using High-Efficiency Particulate Air Filters, using the similar DNA sequence based technique called “metagenomics”, which would reveal the entire microbial diversity of these clouds. While most ancient authors, such as Hesiod and Pliny, tended to ascribe the rain to the acts of gods,
Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, orator, writer and Academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises tha ...
rejected the idea and instead suggested that the red rain may be caused by "''ex aliqua contagione terrena''", "from some earthly contagion". The two cases in the ''Iliad'' are explained by
Heraclitus Heraclitus (; ; ) was an Ancient Greece, ancient Greek Pre-Socratic philosophy, pre-Socratic philosopher from the city of Ephesus, which was then part of the Achaemenid Empire, Persian Empire. He exerts a wide influence on Western philosophy, ...
as simply red-coloured rain rather than literally blood; however, a later
scholiast Scholia (: scholium or scholion, from , "comment", "interpretation") are grammatical, critical, or explanatory comments – original or copied from prior commentaries – which are inserted in the margin of the manuscript of ancient au ...
(a critical or explanatory commentator) suggests that it was precipitation of blood that had evaporated earlier: after a battle, blood would flow into nearby water courses, evaporate, and then fall as rain. This explanation, demonstrating unfamiliarity with the properties of
distillation Distillation, also classical distillation, is the process of separating the component substances of a liquid mixture of two or more chemically discrete substances; the separation process is realized by way of the selective boiling of the mixt ...
was echoed by
Eustathius of Thessalonica Eustathius of Thessalonica (or Eustathios of Thessalonike; ; ) was a Byzantine Greek scholar and Archbishop of Thessalonica and is a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church. He is most noted for his stand against the sack of Thessalonica by the No ...
, a 12th-century archbishop. Tatlock, in a study of some medieval cases of blood rain, notes that the medieval cases of blood rain "agree well" with their classical counterparts. Although there are variables (for example, the rain sometimes lasted only for a short period, while on other occasions, it could last days), they were widely considered to be bad omens and warnings of bad events to come. He also suggests that the phenomenon may be recorded only in small areas because the colour of the rain would not always be noticed and may be obvious against only pale backgrounds. In the classical period, events such as a shower of blood was seen a demonstration of godly power; in the medieval period, Christians were less inclined to attribute the phenomenon to such reasons although followers of nature-religions were happy to do so. In the 19th century, there was a trend towards examining events such as rains of blood more scientifically; Ehrenberg conducted experiments at the Berlin Academy, attempting to recreate "blood rain" using dust mixed with water. He concluded that blood rain was caused by water mixing with a reddish dust, mostly composed of animal and vegetable matter. He was unclear on the origin of the dust but stated that it lacked the characteristics of African dust that might have indicated it came from the
Sahara Desert The Sahara (, ) is a desert spanning across North Africa. With an area of , it is the largest hot desert in the world and the list of deserts by area, third-largest desert overall, smaller only than the deserts of Antarctica and the northern Ar ...
. Instead, he suggested that the dust came from dried swamps where it was picked up by violent winds and would later fall as rain. This explanation has persisted, and the ''
Academic Press Academic Press (AP) is an academic book publisher founded in 1941. It launched a British division in the 1950s. Academic Press was acquired by Harcourt, Brace & World in 1969. Reed Elsevier said in 2000 it would buy Harcourt, a deal complete ...
Dictionary of Science and Technology'' (1992) attributes the colour of blood rain to the presence of dust containing
iron oxide An iron oxide is a chemical compound composed of iron and oxygen. Several iron oxides are recognized. Often they are non-stoichiometric. Ferric oxyhydroxides are a related class of compounds, perhaps the best known of which is rust. Iron ...
. Other reasons for blood rain aside from dust are sometimes given. Schove and Ho have suggested that some descriptions of red rain or vapor may refer to
aurora An aurora ( aurorae or auroras), also commonly known as the northern lights (aurora borealis) or southern lights (aurora australis), is a natural light display in Earth's sky, predominantly observed in high-latitude regions (around the Arc ...
e. When red rain fell in Kerala, dust was the suspected cause. Alternative theories, later dismissed, included dust from a meteorite and extraterrestrial cells in the water. The particles causing the red colour in Kerala were later determined to be spores of the alga '' Trentepohlia annulata''.


Occurrence in Kerala


See also

*
Charles Fort Charles Hoy Fort (August 6, 1874 – May 3, 1932) was an American writer and researcher who specialized in anomalous phenomena. The terms "Fortean" and "Forteana" are sometimes used to characterize various such phenomena. Fort's books sold w ...
: Fort wrote extensively about the phenomenon of colored rains. *
Watermelon snow Watermelon snow, also called snow algae, pink snow, red snow, or blood snow, is a phenomenon caused by ''Chlamydomonas nivalis'', a species of green algae containing a secondary red carotenoid pigment (astaxanthin) in addition to chlorophyll. Unli ...
*
Hindsight bias Hindsight bias, also known as the knew-it-all-along phenomenon or creeping determinism, is the common tendency for people to perceive past events as having been more predictable than they were. After an event has occurred, people often believe ...
*
Kentucky meat shower The Kentucky meat shower was an incident occurring for a period of several minutes between 11 a.m. and 12 p.m. on March 3, 1876, where what appeared to be chunks of red meat fell from the sky in a area near Olympia Springs in Bath County, Kentuc ...
*
Star jelly Star jelly (also called astromyxin, astral jelly) is a gelatinous substance sometimes found on grass and less commonly on the branches of trees. According to folklore, it is deposited on the Earth during meteor showers. It is described as a trans ...


References

Notes
Bibliography
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Further Reading * *


External links

* {{DEFAULTSORT:Blood Rain Precipitation Anomalous weather Shades of red