The term "Red Priests" (French: ''Curés rouges'') or "Philosopher Priests" is a modern historiographical term that refers to

Catholic The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...

priest A priest is a religious leader authorized to perform the sacred rituals of a religion, especially as a mediatory agent between humans and one or more deity, deities. They also have the authority or power to administer religious rites; in parti ...

s who, to varying degrees, supported the French Revolution (1789-1799). The term "Red Priests" was coined in 1901 by Gilbert Brégail and later adopted by Edmond Campagnac. However, it is anachronistic because the color

red Red is the color at the long wavelength end of the visible spectrum of light, next to orange and opposite violet. It has a dominant wavelength of approximately 625–750 nanometres. It is a primary color in the RGB color model and a seconda ...

, associated with

socialist Socialism is an economic ideology, economic and political philosophy encompassing diverse Economic system, economic and social systems characterised by social ownership of the means of production, as opposed to private ownership. It describes ...

movements since 1848, did not signify supporters of the French Revolution, who were referred to as "Blues" during the civil wars of 1793–1799, in contrast to the royalist "Whites". Hence, a recent historian suggested using the term "Philosopher Priests" to describe this group, a term used at the time to refer to these priests. Among the prominent members of this group were

Abbé Sieyès ''Abbé'' (from Latin , in turn from Greek , , from Aramaic ''abba'', a title of honour, literally meaning "the father, my father", emphatic state of ''abh'', "father") is the French word for an abbot. It is also the title used for lower-ranki ...

Abbé Grégoire ''Abbé'' (from Latin , in turn from Greek , , from Aramaic ''abba'', a title of honour, literally meaning "the father, my father", emphatic state of ''abh'', "father") is the French word for an abbot. It is also the title used for lower-ranki ...

, and

Jacques Roux Jacques Roux (; 21 August 1752 – 10 February 1794) was a radical Roman Catholic Red priest who took an active role in politics during the French Revolution. He skillfully expounded the ideals of popular democracy and classless society to cro ...

(1752-1794), who committed suicide in prison after being incarcerated on the orders of the

Committee of Public Safety The Committee of Public Safety () was a committee of the National Convention which formed the provisional government and war cabinet during the Reign of Terror, a violent phase of the French Revolution. Supplementing the Committee of General D ...

led by

Robespierre Maximilien François Marie Isidore de Robespierre (; ; 6 May 1758 – 28 July 1794) was a French lawyer and statesman, widely recognised as one of the most influential and controversial figures of the French Revolution. Robespierre fer ...

. However, the group included many more members, especially all the priests who took the constitutional oath from 1791 onward, known as " sworn priests" in contrast to " refractory priests". The priests who were deputies to the

National Convention The National Convention () was the constituent assembly of the Kingdom of France for one day and the French First Republic for its first three years during the French Revolution, following the two-year National Constituent Assembly and the ...

and who voted in favour of the death of Louis XVI are also considered as part of this group. A number of priests from this group were extremists during the

Reign of Terror The Reign of Terror (French: ''La Terreur'', literally "The Terror") was a period of the French Revolution when, following the creation of the French First Republic, First Republic, a series of massacres and Capital punishment in France, nu ...

. Often from the lower clergy (parish priests and vicars), they constituted a significant faction within the

Catholic Church in France The Catholic Church in France, Gallican Church, or French Catholic Church, is part of the worldwide Catholic Church in communion with the Pope in Rome. Established in the 2nd century in unbroken communion with the bishop of Rome, it was sometim ...

at the beginning of the

Revolution In political science, a revolution (, 'a turn around') is a rapid, fundamental transformation of a society's class, state, ethnic or religious structures. According to sociologist Jack Goldstone, all revolutions contain "a common set of elements ...

. They supported

Gallicanism Gallicanism is the belief that popular secular authority—often represented by the monarch's or the state's authority—over the Catholic Church is comparable to that of the pope. Gallicanism is a rejection of ultramontanism; it has something ...

, advocating for the autonomy or even independence of the Catholic Church in France from the

Pope The pope is the bishop of Rome and the Head of the Church#Catholic Church, visible head of the worldwide Catholic Church. He is also known as the supreme pontiff, Roman pontiff, or sovereign pontiff. From the 8th century until 1870, the po ...

. They opposed the privileges of the higher clergy and the nobility, clerical celibacy, and religious intolerance. While some of them left the clergy, often in connection with the criticism of

clerical celibacy Clerical celibacy is the requirement in certain religions that some or all members of the clergy be unmarried. Clerical celibacy also requires abstention from deliberately indulging in sexual thoughts and behavior outside of marriage, because thes ...

, a small minority engaged in actions of dechristianization.

Terminology

The term "Red Priests" was first coined by Gilbert Brégail in 1901 and later adopted by Edmond Campagnac in 1913. It has been utilized by academic historians such as

Albert Mathiez Albert-Xavier-Émile Mathiez (; 10 January 1874 – 26 February 1932) was a French historian, best known for his Marxist interpretation of the French Revolution. Mathiez emphasized class conflict. He argued that 1789 pitted the bourgeoisie agains ...

Albert Soboul Albert Marius Soboul (27 April 1914 – 11 September 1982) was a historian of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic periods. A professor at the Sorbonne, he was chair of the History of the French Revolution and author of numerous influenti ...

(Marxist historian), and Father Bernard Plongeron from the

Catholic Institute of Paris The Institut catholique de Paris (, abbr. ICP), known in English as the Catholic University of Paris (and in Latin as ''Universitas catholica Parisiensis''), is a private university located in Paris, France. History: 1875–present The Institut ...

, specialist about the

Constitutional Church The Civil Constitution of the Clergy () was a law passed on 12 July 1790 during the French Revolution, that sought the complete control over the Catholic Church in France by the French government. As a result, a schism was created, resulting ...

. Acknowledging that the term "Red Priests" is an anachronism, some historians, including Annie Geffroy, James C. Scott, and Serge Bianchi, have criticized it. However, these critics do not dispute the existence of this group of clergy in question. Serge Bianchi suggested using the term "Philosopher Priests," which is contemporary and avoids the historical issue associated with the term "Red Priests."

History

The Catholic Church in France prior to the crisis of 1788

Catholicism The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...

was the state religion. The

was deeply divided into various factions on the eve of the French Revolution. In general, bishops and abbots constituted a significant social group, wealthy and closely connected to the ruling elites, enjoying fiscal, economic, judicial, and property privileges. On the other hand, priests, especially those in rural areas or small to medium-sized towns, were generally much more integrated into the living conditions of their parishioners, the

Third Estate The estates of the realm, or three estates, were the broad orders of social hierarchy used in Christendom (Christian Europe) from the Middle Ages to early modern Europe. Different systems for dividing society members into estates developed and ...

. They formed a large group within the

, and a substantial number of these priests were intellectually educated, having access to

Enlightenment Enlightenment or enlighten may refer to: Age of Enlightenment * Age of Enlightenment, period in Western intellectual history from the late 17th to late 18th century, centered in France but also encompassing (alphabetically by country or culture): ...

writings, the ''

Encyclopédie , better known as ''Encyclopédie'' (), was a general encyclopedia published in France between 1751 and 1772, with later supplements, revised editions, and translations. It had many writers, known as the Encyclopédistes. It was edited by Denis ...

'', and, for the most part, the works of

Jean-Jacques Rousseau Jean-Jacques Rousseau (, ; ; 28 June 1712 – 2 July 1778) was a Republic of Geneva, Genevan philosopher (''philosophes, philosophe''), writer, and composer. His political philosophy influenced the progress of the Age of Enlightenment through ...

. Many of these priests, monks, and religious leaders were highly critical of various aspects, such as

, leading some to leave the priesthood by getting married. They were also critical of the fact that the Catholic Church was subject to the

, perceived as an ally of the

counter-revolutionaries A counter-revolutionary or an anti-revolutionary is anyone who opposes or resists a revolution, particularly one who acts after a revolution has occurred, in order to try to overturn it or reverse its course, in full or in part. The adjective "c ...

. Consequently, they generally supported

played a particularly significant role in shaping the views of these priests. He advocated for a Christian church free from the "soldiers of the Pontiff," a return to the apostolic prohibition of holy war, expressing it as follows:

Properly understood, this falls under paganism; as the Gospel does not establish a national religion, any sacred war is impossible among Christians. ..Thus remains the religion of man or Christianity, not the one of today, but that of the Gospel, which is entirely different. Through this holy, sublime, true religion, men, children of the same God, recognized each other as brothers, and the society that united them did not dissolve even in death.

From the Estates-General to the Early Days of the Constituent National Assembly (January–July 1789)

Convocation of the Estates-General

In 1788, after several attempts to address the financial crisis of the kingdom, Louis XVI decided to convene the Estates-General, a gathering that had not taken place since 1614. The convocation was announced in December 1788. The Estates-General was an exceptional assembly bringing together representatives from the three orders of the kingdom: the clergy, the nobility, and the Third Estate. Members of the clergy and nobility were to assemble at the bailiwick capital to elect one deputy each. For the Third Estate, each parish was to elect a delegate, and these delegates, gathered at the bailiwick capital, were to elect two deputies (the principle of the "doubling of the Third Estate", an innovation of 1789). Elections were to be accompanied, in each parish and at the bailiwick capital, by the drafting of lists of grievances (''

cahiers de doléances The Cahiers de doléances (; or simply Cahiers as they were often known) were the lists of grievances drawn up by each of the three Estates in France, between January and April 1789, the year in which the French Revolution began. Their compilatio ...

'') that the deputies were to bring to Versailles". Le Serment du Jeu de paume

Drafting of Grievance Lists (''Cahiers de doléances'')

Priests played a central role in drafting ''

'' in their parishes because they were often the only ones who could read and write well, and they managed parish registers (baptisms, marriages, burials). They also contributed to the drafting of ''cahiers de doléances'' for the clergy, their own order, where they were in the majority. Thus, one can find demands similar to those of the

in their ''cahiers de doléances'', as in the case of

Forcalquier Forcalquier (; ) is a commune in the Alpes-de-Haute-Provence department in southeastern France. Forcalquier is located between the Lure Mountain( fr) and Luberon mountain ranges, about south of Sisteron and west of the Durance river. Dur ...

Consideration should be given in the distribution of benefits and other ecclesiastical graces, based on service and merit rather than birth. ..We will seek the easing of taxes weighing on the poor people, such as those on leather, unheard-of and ruinous domain rights, and controls. ..One of the most pressing needs of the Kingdom is the reform of justice, both civil and criminal. ..Priests, pastors, are the fathers of the poor. Their sad condition deserves a place in the grievance list. The hardworking day laborer, for whom work is not sufficient, and the poor widow burdened with children have no resources other than the charity of their pastors. Our deputies will be our spokespeople and will obtain, for the unfortunate, relief from all burdens. ..To abolish the use of
lettres de cachet ''Lettres de cachet'' (; ) were letters signed by the king of France, countersigned by one of his ministers, and closed with the royal seal. They contained orders directly from the king, often to enforce actions and judgments that could not be ...
and to lift those that have been issued in the past.

Election of Clergy Deputies

Priests and vicars (the lower clergy) were favored by the election process. The clergy was given to elect 296 deputies. At the end of the electoral process, 47 bishops out of 130 were elected, but priests and vicars were much more numerous, with 208 elected (70% of the 296). Most of them were priests critical of the privileges of the clergy. There were also priests elected as deputies of the Third Estate, notably

, the author of " ''What is the Third Estate''?" and "''Essay on Privileges''," one of the central figures in the early stages of the French Revolution, directly elected by the Third Estate.

The Conflict between the Estates-General and the King (May 5 - July 9, 1789)

The clergy deputies convened at the Estates-General, with 114 out of 133 advocating for voting by head and the clergy's alignment with the Third Estate, as proposed by Abbé Sieyès, representing slightly less than half. Since the motion was initially rejected, 19 of them joined the Third Estate starting from June 13. Father René Lecesve of Saint Triaire, Father David Pierre Ballard de Poiré, and Father Jacques Jallet de Chérigné, three priests from Poitou, were the first to align themselves with the Third Estate, declaring that they came "preceded by the torch of reason, guided by the love of the public good, and the cry of our consciences, placing ourselves with our fellow citizens and brothers."

quickly followed suit. On June 19, the clergy reintroduced the motion, which was accepted by 149 votes out of 296, giving the majority to the dissenting deputies and allowing them to proclaim themselves the

National Assembly In politics, a national assembly is either a unicameral legislature, the lower house of a bicameral legislature, or both houses of a bicameral legislature together. In the English language it generally means "an assembly composed of the repr ...

. On June 20, many priests participated in the

Oath of the Tennis Court The Tennis Court Oath (, ) was taken on 20 June 1789 by the members of the French Third Estate in a real tennis court on the initiative of Jean Joseph Mounier. Their vow "not to separate and to reassemble wherever necessary until the constitut ...

Beginnings of the Constituent National Assembly (July 1789)

On July 9,

Louis XVI Louis XVI (Louis-Auguste; ; 23 August 1754 – 21 January 1793) was the last king of France before the fall of the monarchy during the French Revolution. The son of Louis, Dauphin of France (1729–1765), Louis, Dauphin of France (son and heir- ...

acknowledged the National Assembly proclaimed by the deputies of the Third Estate as the Constituent National Assembly, tasked with drafting a constitution for

France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...

. On July 14, 1789, the

storming of the Bastille The Storming of the Bastille ( ), which occurred in Paris, France, on 14 July 1789, was an act of political violence by revolutionary insurgents who attempted to storm and seize control of the medieval armoury, fortress, and political prison k ...

took place by the Parisian people, partly inspired by Claude Fauchet, an openly revolutionary clergyman. The same day,

presided over the Constituent National Assembly for a session lasting sixty-two hours. He delivered a speech against the enemies of the Nation. In the days that followed, he proposed the abolition of primogeniture, then suggested the abolition of all privileges and the abandonment of the

censitary suffrage Suffrage, political franchise, or simply franchise is the right to vote in public, political elections and referendums (although the term is sometimes used for any right to vote). In some languages, and occasionally in English, the right to v ...

in favor of

universal manhood suffrage Universal manhood suffrage is a form of voting rights in which all adult male citizens within a political system are allowed to vote, regardless of income, property, religion, race, or any other qualification. It is sometimes summarized by the s ...

; on this last point, he was supported only by

Maximilien de Robespierre Maximilien François Marie Isidore de Robespierre (; ; 6 May 1758 – 28 July 1794) was a French lawyer and statesman, widely recognised as one of the most influential and controversial figures of the French Revolution. Robespierre fer ...

, and his motion was rejected.

Constitutional Monarchy

Paris Paris () is the Capital city, capital and List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, largest city of France. With an estimated population of 2,048,472 residents in January 2025 in an area of more than , Paris is the List of ci ...

itself, the revolutionary clergy wielded influence, particularly within religious orders such as the

Augustinians Augustinians are members of several religious orders that follow the Rule of Saint Augustine, written about 400 A.D. by Augustine of Hippo. There are two distinct types of Augustinians in Catholic religious orders dating back to the 12th–13 ...

Carthusians The Carthusians, also known as the Order of Carthusians (), are a Latin enclosed religious order of the Catholic Church. The order was founded by Bruno of Cologne in 1084 and includes both monks and nuns. The order has its own rule, called the ...

Dominicans Dominicans () also known as Quisqueyans () are an ethnic group, ethno-nationality, national people, a people of shared ancestry and culture, who have ancestral roots in the Dominican Republic. The Dominican ethnic group was born out of a fusio ...

, or

Carmelites The Order of the Brothers of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Mount Carmel (; abbreviated OCarm), known as the Carmelites or sometimes by synecdoche known simply as Carmel, is a mendicant order in the Catholic Church for both men and women. Histo ...

. For example, Father François-Valentin Mulot, an Augustinian, served in the

Paris Commune The Paris Commune (, ) was a French revolutionary government that seized power in Paris on 18 March 1871 and controlled parts of the city until 28 May 1871. During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, the French National Guard (France), Nation ...

(1789). The Carthusians and Carmelites blessed

tricolor flags A triband is a vexillological style which consists of three stripes arranged to form a flag. These stripes may be two or three colours, and may be charged with an emblem in the middle stripe. Not all tribands are tricolour flags, which requires t ...

, and the Dominicans participated in the establishment of revolutionary clubs like the

Jacobin Club The Society of the Friends of the Constitution (), renamed the Society of the Jacobins, Friends of Freedom and Equality () after 1792 and commonly known as the Jacobin Club () or simply the Jacobins (; ), was the most influential List of polit ...

and the Breton Club. In the vicinity of Paris, as in Melun, other priests acted in support of the French Revolution, like Father Romain Pichonnier d'Andrezel, who founded a branch of the '' Society of Friends of the Constitution'' (the official name of the Jacobin Club) there. In a speech in Caen in 1791, he expressed himself as follows:

Receive the homage of a heart that shares with you the glory of having seen the scepter of tyrants broken and the happiness of now living under laws dictated by reason and enshrined in evangelical morality.

Father Romain Pichonnier is a striking example of a red priest; from the early days of 1789, he advocated for the election of priests by the faithful and bishops by the priests. He remained loyal to the Jacobins until his death from illness in 1792, expressing frustration with the slow progress of both the

trial of Louis XVI The trial of Louis XVI—officially called "Citizen Louis Capet" since being dethroned—before the National Convention in December 1792 was a key event of the French Revolution. He was convicted of high treason and other crimes, resulting in ...

and the production of pikes. Despite the involvement of the Parisian region, many dissenting priests from rural or small to medium-sized towns came from all over

. Among them was Deputy Dom Gerle, prior of the Chartreuse de Port-Sainte-Marie, who later renounced his vows and monastic life due to his extreme mystical opinions, or

Eulogius Schneider Eulogius Schneider (baptized as: Johann Georg; October 20, 1756 – April 1, 1794) was a Franciscan friar, professor in Bonn and Dominican Order, Dominican in Strasbourg. Life Johann Georg Schneider was born as the son of a viticulture, wine g ...

, a German

Franciscan The Franciscans are a group of related organizations in the Catholic Church, founded or inspired by the Italian saint Francis of Assisi. They include three independent Religious institute, religious orders for men (the Order of Friars Minor bei ...

priest and translator of

John Chrysostom John Chrysostom (; ; – 14 September 407) was an important Church Father who served as archbishop of Constantinople. He is known for his preaching and public speaking, his denunciation of abuse of authority by both ecclesiastical and p ...

, who supported the French Revolution, ran a radical journal called Argos''', and served as public prosecutor of the Criminal Tribunal of Strasbourg. He also renounced his vows to marry, reflecting the opposition frequently shared by red priests to

Generally, the red priests were fervent supporters of the

Civil Constitution of the Clergy The Civil Constitution of the Clergy () was a law passed on 12 July 1790 during the French Revolution, that sought the Caesaropapism, complete control over the Catholic Church in France by the National Constituent Assembly (France), French gove ...

, of which they were partial drafters. About 50% of the priests of the

rallied to the Constitutional Church, exceeding 80% in 27 departments. In the list of clergy deputies who adhered to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, we find, among others, Father Lancelot de Retiers in

Ille-et-Vilaine Ille-et-Vilaine (; Gallo language, Gallo: ''Ill-e-Vilaenn'', ) is a departments of France, department of France, located in the regions of France, region of Brittany (administrative region), Brittany in the northwest of the country. It is named a ...

, who firmly attached his region to the French Revolution. his epitaph dating back to 1806 reads: "Here lies Sir Jos. Lancelot, member of the Constituent Assembly, vicar general of the diocese, father of several councils, president of this canton." In this same list, we also find Father Jean-Baptiste Pierre Saurine, deputy from the Landes; Father Jean-Joseph Rigouard, deputy from Toulon; Father Jean Louis Gouttes, deputy from

Béziers Béziers (; ) is a city in southern France. It is a Subprefectures in France, subprefecture of the Hérault Departments of France, department in the Occitania (administrative region), Occitanie Regions of France, region. Every August Béziers ho ...

; Father Jean-Baptiste Dumouchel, rector of the

University of Paris The University of Paris (), known Metonymy, metonymically as the Sorbonne (), was the leading university in Paris, France, from 1150 to 1970, except for 1793–1806 during the French Revolution. Emerging around 1150 as a corporation associated wit ...

and deputy from Paris; Father Jean Paul Marie Anne Latyl, deputy from Paris; Father Dominique Dillon, priest of Pouzauges and deputy from the

Vendée Vendée () is a department in the Pays de la Loire region in Western France, on the Atlantic coast. In 2019, it had a population of 685,442.Meuse The Meuse or Maas is a major European river, rising in France and flowing through Belgium and the Netherlands before draining into the North Sea from the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta. It has a total length of . History From 1301, the upper ...

; Father de Marsai, deputy from

Loudun Loudun (; ; Poitevin: ''Loudin'') is a commune in the Vienne department and the region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine, western France. It is located south of the town of Chinon and 25 km to the east of the town Thouars. The area south of Loudun ...

; Father Alexandre Thibaut, deputy from

Seine-et-Marne Seine-et-Marne () is a department in the Île-de-France region in Northern France. Named after the rivers Seine and Marne, it is the region's largest department with an area of 5,915 square kilometres (2,284 square miles); it roughly covers its ...

; Father Thomas Lindet, deputy from the

Eure Eure ( ; ; or ) is a department in the administrative region of Normandy, northwestern France, named after the river Eure. Its prefecture is Évreux. In 2021, Eure had a population of 598,934.Hotonnes Hotonnes () is a former commune in the Ain department in eastern France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune Haut Valromey.Bugey The Bugey (, ; Arpitan: ''Bugê'') is a historical region in the department of Ain, eastern France, located between Lyon Lyon (Franco-Provençal: ''Liyon'') is a city in France. It is located at the confluence of the rivers Rhône and Saôn ...

; Father Chouvet, priest of Chaulniélac and deputy from the

Ardèche Ardèche (; , ; ) is a Departments of France, department in Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes, Southeastern France. It is named after the river Ardèche (river), Ardèche and had a population of 328,278 as of 2019.Cistercian The Cistercians (), officially the Order of Cistercians (, abbreviated as OCist or SOCist), are a Catholic religious order of monks and nuns that branched off from the Benedictines and follow the Rule of Saint Benedict, as well as the contri ...

monk A monk (; from , ''monachos'', "single, solitary" via Latin ) is a man who is a member of a religious order and lives in a monastery. A monk usually lives his life in prayer and contemplation. The concept is ancient and can be seen in many reli ...

and deputy from Saint Pol de Léon, future administrator of

Haute-Saône Haute-Saône (; Frainc-Comtou: ''Hâte-Saône''; English: Upper Saône) is a department in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region of northeastern France. Named after the river Saône, it had a population of 235,313 in 2019.

during the

; Father Guy Bouillote, priest of

Arnay-le-Duc Arnay-le-Duc () is a Communes of France, commune in the Côte-d'Or Departments of France, department in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region of eastern France. Geography Arnay-le-Duc is located some 25 km north-west of Beaune and some 35&nbs ...

and deputy from

Auxois The Auxois is a horse breed from eastern France. It is a large breed, with some individuals weighing over , bred for horse meat, agricultural work and leisure pursuits. Overall, members of the breed are solid and muscular in appearance. They a ...

; Father François Bucaille, priest of Fréthun and deputy from

Pas de Calais The Strait of Dover or Dover Strait, historically known as the Dover Narrows, is the strait at the narrowest part of the English Channel, marking the boundary between the Channel and the North Sea, and separating Great Britain from continental ...

; or finally, Father Rousselot, deputy from the Haute-Saône.

Trial of Louis XVI and First Republic

Many red priests voted for the death of

during his trial, just like Father

Jean Bassal Jean Bassal, 12 September 1752, Béziers 3 May 1802, Paris, was a French Deputy, a Congregation of the Mission, Vincentian, and a revolutionary during the French Revolution. With other representatives on mission he sought to quell federalist impu ...

, the parish priest of

Versailles The Palace of Versailles ( ; ) is a former royal residence commissioned by King Louis XIV located in Versailles, Yvelines, Versailles, about west of Paris, in the Yvelines, Yvelines Department of Île-de-France, Île-de-France region in Franc ...

and deputy from

Seine-et-Oise Seine-et-Oise () is a former department of France, which encompassed the western, northern and southern parts of the metropolitan area of Paris. Its prefecture was Versailles and its administrative number was 78. Seine-et-Oise was disbanded in ...

, who voted for the death of the king, against reprieve and against appealing to the people. However, he protected a refractory priest and Marat at his home. While sent as a representative on a mission during the

to suppress disturbances, Jean Bassal was noted for his humanity. Father Pierre Jacques Michel Chasles, deputy from

Eure-et-Loir Eure-et-Loir (, locally: ) is a French department, named after the Eure and Loir rivers. It is located in the region of Centre-Val de Loire. In 2019, Eure-et-Loir had a population of 431,575. "I do not hesitate to say, in front of the homeland, in the presence of the image of Brutus, before my own conscience, that the moment when the Assembly rejected the proposal for an appeal to the primary assemblies seemed to me a day of triumph for freedom and equality, for the salvation of the Republic." By his side was Father Capuchin

François Chabot François Chabot (; 23 October 1756 – 5 April 1794) was a French politician. Early life Born in Saint-Geniez-d'Olt (Aveyron), Chabot became a Capuchin friar in Rodez before the French Revolution, while continuing to be attracted to the work ...

, deputy from

Loir-et-Cher Loir-et-Cher (, ) is a Departments of France, department in the Centre-Val de Loire Regions of France, region of France. It is named after two rivers which run through it, the Loir in its northern part and the Cher (river), Cher in its southern p ...

, who voted for the king's death, expressing himself in this way:

If I wanted to modify my opinion, cloud it in some way, I could also ask that Louis be required to declare his accomplices, and that they be led to the same guillotine. But I do not place any restrictions on my judgment, and I pronounce death because Louis has been a tyrant, because he still is, because he could become one again. The blood of the tyrant must cement the Republic. I vote for death.

With them also voted Father Jacques Louis Dupont, a member of the congregation of the Christian Doctrine and deputy from

Indre-et-Loire Indre-et-Loire () is a department in west-central France named after the Indre River and Loire River. In 2019, it had a population of 610,079. However, he was absent due to illness during the nominal vote, as was Father André Foussedoire, deputy from Loir-et-Cher, a Montagnard, and later a Cretois, who voted for death, saying: "I have always abhorred the shedding of blood, but reason and justice must guide me. Louis was guilty of high treason; I recognized it yesterday. Today, to be consistent, I must pronounce death." The Montagnard Father Léonard Honoré Gay de Vernon, parish priest of

Compreignac Compreignac (; ) is a commune in the Haute-Vienne department in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region in western France. Inhabitants are known as ''Compreignacois'' in French. Geography The commune covers 4,762 hectares. Compreignac is located to the ...

and deputy from

Haute-Vienne Haute-Vienne (; , ; Upper Vienne) is a département in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region in southwest-central France. Named after the Vienne River, it is one of the twelve départements that together constitute Nouvelle-Aquitaine. The prefecture an ...

, voted for the death of the king, against reprieve and against the appeal to the people. After becoming the bishop of Haute-Vienne, he sold his pectoral cross to support revolutionary armies and replaced it with a wooden cross. During the nominal call, he remained laconic, contenting himself with "Louis deserved death; I vote for death." Father Pierre Gibergues, deputy from

Puy-de-Dôme Puy-de-Dôme (; or ''lo Puèi Domat'') is a department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region in the centre of France. In 2021, it had a population of 662,285.the Plain The Plain (), also known as the Marsh (), was the majority of independent deputies in the National Convention during the French Revolution. They were the most moderate and the most numerous group (around 400 deputies) of the National Conventio ...

. Other clergymen also voted for death, such as the Oratorian priest Pierre Ichon, deputy from

Gers Gers (; or , ) is a departments of France, department in the regions of France, region of Occitania (administrative region), Occitania, Southwestern France. Gers is bordered by the departments of Hautes-Pyrénées and Pyrénées-Atlantiques to ...

, or the

Benedictine The Benedictines, officially the Order of Saint Benedict (, abbreviated as O.S.B. or OSB), are a mainly contemplative monastic order of the Catholic Church for men and for women who follow the Rule of Saint Benedict. Initiated in 529, th ...

monk Jacques Léonard Laplanche, deputy from

Nièvre Nièvre () is a department in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region, central-east France. Named after the river Nièvre, it had a population of 204,452 in 2019. Among the clergymen who voted for the death of Louis XVI, there was also the Doctrinaire Father

Joseph Lakanal Joseph Lakanal (14 July 1762 – 14 February 1845) was a French politician, and an original member of the ''Institut de France''. Early career Born in Serres, in present-day Ariège, his name was originally ''Lacanal'', and was altered to ...

, deputy from Ariège, who voted for death after declaring, "A true republican speaks little. The reasons for my decision are here (pointing to his heart); I vote for death." Father Louis-Félix Roux, deputy from

Haute-Marne Haute-Marne (; English: Upper Marne) is a department in the Grand Est region of Northeastern France. Named after the river Marne, its prefecture is Chaumont. In 2019, it had a population of 172,512.

A tyrant once said he wanted the Roman people to have only one head so that it could be struck off in a single blow; Louis Capet, as much as it was in his power, executed this atrocious desire. I voted for death. Avenger of two free peoples, I had only one regret, that the same blow could not strike the head of all tyrants.

Finally, there were Father François-Toussaint Villers, deputy from

Loire-Inférieure Loire-Atlantique (; Gallo: ''Louére-Atantique''; ; before 1957: ''Loire-Inférieure'', ) is a department in Pays de la Loire on the west coast of France, named after the river Loire and the Atlantic Ocean. It had a population of 1,429,272 in ...

, and Father

Claude-Alexandre Ysabeau Claude-Alexandre Ysabeau was born in Gien on 14 July 1754 and died in Paris on 18 March 1831. He was first an Oratory of Saint Philip Neri, Oratorian priest and later a Civil Constitution of the Clergy, constitutional priest in St-Martin-de-Tours, ...

, deputy from

Indre-et-Loire Indre-et-Loire () is a department in west-central France named after the Indre River and Loire River. In 2019, it had a population of 610,079. "A tyrant does not resemble a man; I vote for death," while Villers said, "I vote for a terrible punishment, but one indicated by the law, death." The bishop and deputy of

Oise Oise ( ; ; ) is a department in the north of France. It is named after the river Oise. Inhabitants of the department are called ''Oisiens'' () or ''Isariens'', after the Latin name for the river, Isara. It had a population of 829,419 in 2019.< ...

, Jean-Baptiste Massieu, also voted for death, affirming:

I would believe I failed in justice, in the present and future safety of the homeland, if, by my vote, I contributed to prolonging the existence of the cruelest enemy of justice, laws, and humanity; accordingly, I voted for death.

Alongside the

, in which many red priests participated, they were crucial in the radicalization of the Parisian people. One of them, Father

, the parish priest of the church of Saint-Nicolas-des-Champs, engaged from 1791 and increasingly until his execution in impassioned speeches directed at the

sans-culottes The (; ) were the working class, common people of the social class in France, lower classes in late 18th-century history of France, France, a great many of whom became radical and militant partisans of the French Revolution in response to their ...

. He participated in the Insurrection of August 10, 1792. A member of the

Enragés The Enragés (; ), commonly known as the Ultra-radicals (), were a small number of firebrands known for defending the lower class and expressing the demands of the radical ''sans-culottes'' during the French Revolution.Jeremy D. Popkin (2015). ' ...

faction, he was generally considered one of the most radical politicians of the First Republic, attacking the

Jacobins The Society of the Friends of the Constitution (), renamed the Society of the Jacobins, Friends of Freedom and Equality () after 1792 and commonly known as the Jacobin Club () or simply the Jacobins (; ), was the most influential List of polit ...

for their 'moderation'. On February 25, 1793, he excited the Parisian people to loot Parisian shops. Jacques Roux called for the abolition of

private property Private property is a legal designation for the ownership of property by non-governmental Capacity (law), legal entities. Private property is distinguishable from public property, which is owned by a state entity, and from Collective ownership ...

and the confiscation of the property of aristocrats, a rare and extreme position even within

the Mountain The Mountain () was a political group during the French Revolution. Its members, called the Montagnards (), sat on the highest benches in the National Convention. The term, first used during a session of the Legislative Assembly, came into ge ...

, and reportedly declared, "Liberty is but an empty phantom when one class of men can starve another with impunity." For his extremism, he was targeted by the

during the Terror, appeared before the Criminal Court, which declared itself incompetent, and referred him to the

Revolutionary Tribunal The Revolutionary Tribunal (; unofficially Popular Tribunal) was a court instituted by the National Convention during the French Revolution for the trial of political offenders. In October 1793, it became one of the most powerful engines of ...

. He committed suicide before his execution. He was one of the most well-known figures among the red priests. Some of the red priests adopted revolutionary names under the First Republic and the Terror; Father Dauphin-Français, Father Payelle Jean-Jacques, Father Saint-Didier-Sans-Culotte, Father Chalon-Gracchus, Father Gilard-Brutus Mucius Scaevola were good examples of these renamed priests. While some of them renounced priesthood and left the clergy by renouncing Christianity, a substantial number of them followed the position of

and remained clergy and Christians or adopted a sort of syncretism between republican values and religious values. It seemed that the red priests were strongly opposed to religious intolerance, particularly directed towards

Jews Jews (, , ), or the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group and nation, originating from the Israelites of History of ancient Israel and Judah, ancient Israel and Judah. They also traditionally adhere to Judaism. Jewish ethnicity, rel ...

Protestants Protestantism is a branch of Christianity that emphasizes Justification (theology), justification of sinners Sola fide, through faith alone, the teaching that Salvation in Christianity, salvation comes by unmerited Grace in Christianity, divin ...

Legacy

The expression could be used in other situations, such as during the

Russian Revolution of 1905 The Russian Revolution of 1905, also known as the First Russian Revolution, was a revolution in the Russian Empire which began on 22 January 1905 and led to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy under the Russian Constitution of 1906, t ...

, supported by a portion of the clergy of the

Russian Orthodox Church The Russian Orthodox Church (ROC; ;), also officially known as the Moscow Patriarchate (), is an autocephaly, autocephalous Eastern Orthodox Church, Eastern Orthodox Christian church. It has 194 dioceses inside Russia. The Primate (bishop), p ...

Jean Jaurès Auguste Marie Joseph Jean Léon Jaurès (3 September 185931 July 1914), commonly referred to as Jean Jaurès (; ), was a French socialist leader. Initially a Moderate Republican, he later became a social democrat and one of the first possibi ...

took an interest in

and designated February 25, 1793, as Jacques Roux Day.

Marcel Pagnol Marcel Paul Pagnol (, also ; ; 28 February 1895 – 18 April 1974) was a French novelist, playwright, and filmmaker. Regarded as an auteur, in 1946, he became the first filmmaker elected to the . Pagnol is generally regarded as one of France's ...

and

Charles Péguy Charles Pierre Péguy (; 7 January 1873 – 5 September 1914) was a French poet, essayist, and editor. His two main philosophies were socialism and nationalism; by 1908 at the latest, after years of uneasy agnosticism, he had become a believing ( ...

cite them as the "saints without hope" of the

French Republic France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...

Victor Hugo Victor-Marie Hugo, vicomte Hugo (; 26 February 1802 – 22 May 1885) was a French Romanticism, Romantic author, poet, essayist, playwright, journalist, human rights activist and politician. His most famous works are the novels ''The Hunchbac ...

mentions them when he described the

, in his last novel, "

Quatrevingt-treize ''Ninety-Three'' (''Quatrevingt-treize'') is the last novel by the French writer Victor Hugo. Published in 1874, three years after the bloody upheaval of the Paris Commune that resulted out of popular reaction to Napoleon III's failure to win ...

" (English : Ninety-Three) which explores the period of the

The imprecations exchanged retorts. — Conspirator! — Assassin! — Scoundrel! — Factious! — Moderate! — Accusations hurled at the bust of Brutus standing there. Apostrophes, insults, challenges. Furious glares from one side to the other, fists raised, glimpses of pistols, daggers half-drawn. Massive blaze from the platform. Some spoke as if they were leaning against the guillotine. Heads swayed, terrified and terrible. Montagnards, Girondins, Feuillants, moderates, terrorists, Jacobins, Cordeliers; eighteen regicide priests. All these men! A heap of smoke driven in all directions. Spirits at the mercy of the wind. But this wind was a wind of wonder. To be a member of the Convention was to be a wave of the ocean.

References

{{DEFAULTSORT:Civil Constitution Of The Clergy 1789 in Christianity 1790 in Christianity 1791 in Christianity 1792 in Christianity 1793 in Christianity 18th-century French Roman Catholic priests History of Catholicism in France Religion and the French Revolution Church and state law Religious oaths Law in French Revolution Regicides of Louis XVI French political writers