Raphides ( ; singular ''raphide'' or ''raphis'') are needle-shaped crystals of

calcium oxalate Calcium oxalate (in archaic terminology, oxalate of lime) is a calcium salt of oxalic acid with the chemical formula or . It forms hydrates , where ''n'' varies from 1 to 3. Anhydrous and all hydrated forms are colorless or white. The monohydr ...

monohydrate (

prismatic An optical prism is a transparent optics, optical element with flat, polished surfaces that are designed to refraction, refract light. At least one surface must be angled—elements with two parallel surfaces are ''not'' prisms. The most fami ...

monoclinic In crystallography, the monoclinic crystal system is one of the seven crystal systems. A crystal system is described by three Vector (geometric), vectors. In the monoclinic system, the crystal is described by vectors of unequal lengths, as in t ...

crystals) or

calcium carbonate Calcium carbonate is a chemical compound with the chemical formula . It is a common substance found in Rock (geology), rocks as the minerals calcite and aragonite, most notably in chalk and limestone, eggshells, gastropod shells, shellfish skel ...

as aragonite ( dipyramidal

orthorhombic In crystallography, the orthorhombic crystal system is one of the 7 crystal systems. Orthorhombic Lattice (group), lattices result from stretching a cubic crystal system, cubic lattice along two of its orthogonal pairs by two different factors, res ...

crystals), found in more than 200 families of plants. Both ends are needle-like, but raphides tend to be blunt at one end and sharp at the other.

Calcium oxalate in plants

Many plants accumulate calcium oxalate crystals in response to surplus calcium, which is found throughout the natural environment. The crystals are produced in a variety of shapes. The crystal morphology depends on the taxonomic group of the plant. In one study of over 100 species, it was found that calcium oxalate accounted for 6.3% of plant dry weight. Crystal morphology and the distribution of raphides (in roots or leaves or tubers etc.) is similar in some taxa but different in others leaving possible opportunities for plant key characteristics and systematic identification;

mucilage Mucilage is a thick gluey substance produced by nearly all plants and some microorganisms. These microorganisms include protists which use it for their locomotion, with the direction of their movement always opposite to that of the secretion of ...

in raphide containing cells makes light microscopy difficult, though. Little is known about the mechanisms of sequestration or indeed the reason for the accumulation of raphides but it is most likely as a defense mechanism against herbivory. It has also been suggested that in some cases raphides may help form plant skeletal structures. Raphides typically occur in

parenchyma upright=1.6, Lung parenchyma showing damage due to large subpleural bullae. Parenchyma () is the bulk of functional substance in an animal organ such as the brain or lungs, or a structure such as a tumour. In zoology, it is the tissue that ...

cells in aerial organs, especially the leaves, and are generally confined to the mesophyll. As the leaf area increases, so does the number of raphides, the process starting in even young leaves. The first indication that the cell will contain crystals is shown when the cells enlarge with a larger nucleus. Raphides are found in specialized plant cells or crystal chambers called idioblasts. Also, Electron micrographs have shown that raphide needle crystals are normally four sided or H-shaped (with a groove down both sides) or with a hexagonal cross section and some are barbed. Wattendorf (1976) suggested that all circular sectioned raphides, as visible in a light microscope, are probably hexagonal in cross section The hexagonal crystals reported by Wattendorf in ''

Agave americana ''Agave americana'', commonly known as the century plant, maguey, or American aloe, is a flowering plant species belonging to the family Asparagaceae. It is native to Mexico and the United States, specifically Texas. This plant is widely cultiv ...

'' were apparently calcium oxalate. Microscopy using polarized light shows bright opalescence with raphides. Plants like '' Tradescantia pallida'' also accumulate calcium oxalate crystals in response to heavy metals stress.

Harmful effects

Raphides can produce severe toxic reactions by facilitating the passage of toxin through the herbivore's skin when the tissue containing the raphides also contains toxins. The lethal dose to mice is around 15 mg/kg. Raphides seem to be a defense mechanism against plant consuming animals, as they are likely to tear and harm the soft tissues of the throat or esophagus of an animal chewing on the plant's leaves. The venomous process is in two stages: mechanical pricking and injection of harmful

protease A protease (also called a peptidase, proteinase, or proteolytic enzyme) is an enzyme that catalysis, catalyzes proteolysis, breaking down proteins into smaller polypeptides or single amino acids, and spurring the formation of new protein products ...

. Typically ingestion of plants containing raphides, like those common in certain houseplants, can cause immediate numbing followed shortly by painful foot swelling, vesicle formation and swelling throat, accompanied by painful stinging and burning to the mouth and throat with symptoms occurring for up to two weeks. Airway assessment and management are of the highest priority, as are extensive irrigation and analgesics in eye exposure. Raphides cannot normally be destroyed by boiling; that requires an acidic environment or chemical solvents like ether. Plants containing large amounts of raphides are generally acrid and unpalatable. However, it is not always possible to detect the presence of raphides through taste alone. In some tubers such as the Indian turnip which contain large quantities of raphides, the roots are not unpalatable when cooked because the raphides are bound within a matrix of starch which prevents the tongue from sensing their presence. Some other plants store raphides in mucilaginous environments and also do not taste acrid. There is some doubt about the role of raphides in defense against herbivory. Insects are only rarely affected by them, and no more than by sand.

Ruminant Ruminants are herbivorous grazing or browsing artiodactyls belonging to the suborder Ruminantia that are able to acquire nutrients from plant-based food by fermenting it in a specialized stomach prior to digestion, principally through microb ...

s are not harmed by them, because certain bacteria in their

rumen The rumen, also known as a paunch, is the largest stomach compartment in ruminants. The rumen and the reticulum make up the reticulorumen in ruminant animals. The diverse microbial communities in the rumen allows it to serve as the primary si ...

help to degrade

oxalate Oxalate (systematic IUPAC name: ethanedioate) is an anion with the chemical formula . This dianion is colorless. It occurs naturally, including in some foods. It forms a variety of salts, for example sodium oxalate (), and several esters such as ...

Plants containing raphides

Common names vary. The following list is incomplete. Raphides are found in many species in the families

Araceae The Araceae are a family of monocotyledonous flowering plants in which flowers are borne on a type of inflorescence called a spadix. The spadix is usually accompanied by, and sometimes partially enclosed in, a spathe (or leaf-like bract). Also ...

and

Commelinaceae Commelinaceae is a family of flowering plants. In less formal contexts, the group is referred to as the dayflower family or spiderwort family. It is one of five families in the order Commelinales and by far the largest of these with about 731 kn ...

, but are also found in a few species in a number of other families.

Acanthaceae Acanthaceae () is a Family (biology), family (the acanthus family) of dicotyledonous flowering plants containing almost 250 genera and about 2500 species. Most are Tropics, tropical Herbaceous plant, herbs, shrubs, or twining vines; some are epip ...

: * '' Strobilanthes barbata'' (stem, leaf) * '' Strobilanthes callosa'' (stem, leaf) * '' Strobilanthes ciliata'' (stem, leaf) * '' Strobilanthes heyneana'' (leaf) * '' Strobilanthes integrifolia'' (stem, leaf) * '' Strobilanthes lupulina'' (stem, leaf) * '' Strobilanthes reticulata'' (stem, leaf) * '' Strobilanthes sessilis'' (stem, leaf) * '' Thunbergia erecta'' (stem, leaf) * '' Thunbergia laurifolia'' (stem, leaf)

Actinidiaceae The Actinidiaceae are a small family (biology), family of flowering plants. The family has three genus, genera and about 360 species and is a member of the order Ericales. Distribution They are temperate and subtropical woody plant, woody vines, ...

: * '' Actinidia arguta'' (root, flower, fruit) * ''

Actinidia callosa ''Actinidia callosa'', the Himalayan kiwi vine, is a species of flowering plant in the Chinese gooseberry family Actinidiaceae. A deciduous climber reaching , it is found in a wide variety of habitats at elevations from . Cultivated for its frui ...

'' (fruit) * ''

Actinidia chinensis ''Actinidia chinensis'' is a fruiting vine native to China. It is one of some 40 related species of the genus '' Actinidia'', and the origin of most commercial varieties of kiwifruit. There are three accepted varieties of the species. ''Actini ...

'' (root, flower, fruit) * '' Actinidia chrysantha'' (root, fruit) * '' Actinidia deliiosa'' (fruit) * '' Actinidia eriantha'' (fruit) * '' Actinidia fulvicoma'' (fruit) * '' Actinidia glaucophylla'' (fruit) * '' Actinidia hemsleyana'' (root) * '' Actinidia indochinensis'' (fruit) * '' Actinidia lanceolata'' (fruit) * '' Actinidia macrosperma'' (fruit) * ''

Actinidia polygama ''Actinidia polygama'' (also known as silver vine, matatabi and cat powder) is a species of kiwifruit in the family Actinidiaceae. It grows in the mountainous areas of Korea, Japan and China at elevations between . Name In Korean, ''A. polyga ...

'' (fruit) * '' Actinidia rufa'' (root, fruit) * '' Clematoclethra scandens'' (flower) * '' Saurauia pittieri'' (flower) * ''

Saurauia subspinosa ''Saurauia'' is a genus of plants in the family Actinidiaceae. It comprises about over 300 species distributed in the tropics and subtropics of Asia and South and Central America. Genetic evidence and the cell biology of the group support monophy ...

'' (flower)

Alstroemeriaceae Alstroemeriaceae is a family of flowering plants, with 254 known species in four genera, almost entirely native to the Americas, from Central America to southern South America. One species of '' Luzuriaga'' occurs in New Zealand, and the genus '' ...

: * '' Alstroemeria angustifolia'' (leaf) * ''

Alstroemeria aurea ''Alstroemeria aurea'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Alstroemeriaceae, native to Chile and Argentina, but naturalised in Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom. It is also widely cultivated as an ornamental. Common names ...

'' (leaf) * '' Alstroemeria exserens'' (leaf) * '' Alstroemeria hookeri'' (leaf) * '' Alstroemeria ligtu'' (leaf) * '' Alstroemeria magnifica'' (leaf) * '' Alstroemeria pallida'' (leaf) * '' Alstroemeria pelegrina'' (leaf) * '' Alstroemeria presliana'' (leaf) * '' Alstroemeria pulchra'' (leaf) * '' Alstroemeria versicolor'' (leaf) * '' Bomarea multiflora'' (leaf) * '' Bomarea ovallei'' (leaf)

Amaranthaceae Amaranthaceae ( ) is a family of flowering plants commonly known as the amaranth family, in reference to its type genus '' Amaranthus''. It includes the former goosefoot family Chenopodiaceae and contains about 165 genera and 2,040 species, maki ...

: * ''

Beta Beta (, ; uppercase , lowercase , or cursive ; or ) is the second letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals, it has a value of 2. In Ancient Greek, beta represented the voiced bilabial plosive . In Modern Greek, it represe ...

'' * '' Spinacia''

Amaryllidaceae The Amaryllidaceae are a family of herbaceous, mainly perennial and bulbous (rarely rhizomatous) flowering plants in the monocot order Asparagales. The family takes its name from the genus '' Amaryllis'' and is commonly known as the amaryl ...

: * '' Crinum amabile'' (leaf) * '' Leucojum aestivum'' (leaf) * '' Pancratium sickenbergeri'' (leaf)

: * ''

Alocasia macrorrhizos ''Alocasia macrorrhizos'' is a species of flowering plant in the arum family (Araceae) that it is native to rainforests of Maritime Southeast Asia, New Guinea, and Queensland and has long been cultivated in South Asia, the Philippines, many Pac ...

'' (root, stem, leaf, flower) * '' Amorphophallus bulbifer'' (leaf) * '' Amorphophallus blumei'' (root, leaf) * '' Amorphophallus dunnii'' (leaf) * '' Amorphophallus gallaensis'' (leaf) * '' Amorphophallus konjac'' (leaf) * '' Amorphophallus krausei'' (leaf) * '' Amorphophallus muelleri'' (root, leaf) * ''

Amorphophallus paeoniifolius ''Amorphophallus paeoniifolius'', the elephant foot yam or whitespot giant arum, is a tropical plant native to Island Southeast Asia. It is cultivated for its edible tubers in Southeast Asia, South Asia, Madagascar, New Guinea, and the Pacific ...

'' (root, leaf) * '' Amorphophallus salmoneus'' (leaf) * '' Amorphophallus sutepensis'' (leaf) * '' Amorphophallus taurostigma'' (leaf) * ''

Amorphophallus titanum The titan arum (''Amorphophallus titanum'') is a flowering plant in the family Araceae. It has a large unbranched inflorescence; a tall single leaf, branched like a tree; and a heavy tuber which enables the plant to produce the inflorescence. ' ...

'' (leaf) * ''

Amorphophallus variabilis ''Amorphophallus'' is a large genus of some 200 tropical and subtropical tuberous herbaceous plants from the arum family (Araceae), native to Asia, Africa, Australia and various oceanic islands. The genus includes the Titan arum (''A. titanum'') ...

'' (leaf) * '' Anaphyllopsis americana'' (flower) * ''

Anthurium andraeanum ''Anthurium andraeanum'' is a flowering plant species in the family Araceae that is native to Colombia and Ecuador. It is a winner of the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit. Names Common names for plants in the genus ''Anthurium ...

'' (leaf, flower) * '' Anthurium acaule'' (flower) * ''

Anthurium crystallinum ''Anthurium crystallinum'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Araceae, native to rainforest margins in Central and South America, from Panama to Peru. Growing to around tall and wide, ''A. crystallinum'' is an epiphytic perennial ev ...

'' (flower) * ''

Anthurium cubense ''Anthurium cubense'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Araceae, native to southeastern Mexico, Central America, Cuba, Colombia, and Venezuela Venezuela, officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, is a country on the nor ...

'' (flower) * '' Anthurium halmoorei'' (flower) * '' Anthurium harrisii'' (flower) * ''

Anthurium jenmannii ''Anthurium'' (; Schott, 1829) is a genus of about 1,000Mantovani, A. and T. E. Pereira. (2005)''Anthurium'' (section ''Urospadix''; subsection ''Flavescentiviridia'').''Rodriguesia'' 56(88), 145–60. species of flowering plants, the largest g ...

'' (flower) * '' Anthurium magnificum'' (flower) * '' Anthurium maricense'' (leaf) * ''

Anthurium pallidiflorum ''Anthurium pallidiflorum'' is a species of plant in the family Araceae. It is endemic to Ecuador. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests. It is threatened by habitat loss Habitat destruction (also termed habi ...

'' (flower) * '' Anthurium pedatoradiatum'' (flower) * ''

Anthurium schlechtendalii ''Anthurium schlechtendalii'', also known as pheasant's tail or in Spanish language, Spanish, is a broad-leafed plant used for multiple medicinal purposes, including muscle and joint sprains, back pain, arthritis and rheumatism. Description '' ...

'' (flower) * ''

Anthurium signatum ''Anthurium'' (; Schott, 1829) is a genus of about 1,000Mantovani, A. and T. E. Pereira. (2005)''Anthurium'' (section ''Urospadix''; subsection ''Flavescentiviridia'').''Rodriguesia'' 56(88), 145–60. species of flowering plants, the largest g ...

'' (flower) * ''

Anthurium spectabile ''Anthurium spectabile'' is an herbaceous rainforest plant of the family Araceae native to Costa Rica. It is notable for its huge oblong-lanceolate blade, or lamina Lamina may refer to: People * Saa Emerson Lamina, Sierra Leonean politician ...

'' (flower) * '' Anubias heterophylla'' (flower) * '' Arisaema'' * '' Arisarum vulgare'' (flower) * '' Arum pictum'' (flower) * ''

Caladium ''Caladium'' () is a genus of flowering plants in the family Araceae. They are often known by the common name elephant ear (which they share with the closely related genera ''Alocasia'', ''Colocasia'', and ''Xanthosoma''), heart of Jesus, and ang ...

'' * '' Calla palustris'' (flower) * '' Cercestis dinklagei'' (flower) * '' Colocasia affinis'' (stem) * '' Colocasia gigantea'' (stem) * ''

Colocasia esculenta Taro (; ''Colocasia esculenta'') is a root vegetable. It is the most widely cultivated species of several plants in the family Araceae that are used as vegetables for their corms, leaves, stems and Petiole (botany), petioles. Taro corms are a ...

'' (root, stem, leaf) * ''

Cyrtosperma chamissonis ''Cyrtosperma merkusii'' or giant swamp taro, is a crop grown throughout Oceania and into South and Southeast Asia. It is a riverine and "swamp crop" similar to taro, but "with bigger leaves and larger, coarser roots." There are no demonstrably ...

'' (stem) * '' Cyrtosperma johnstonii'' (root, leaf, flower) * ''

Cyrtosperma merkusii ''Cyrtosperma merkusii'' or giant swamp taro, is a crop grown throughout Oceania and into South and Southeast Asia. It is a riverine and "swamp crop" similar to taro, but "with bigger leaves and larger, coarser roots." There are no demonstrably ...

'' (stem, leaf) * '' Dieffenbachia seguine'' (stem, leaf, flower) * '' Epipremnum'' * '' Lemna minor'' (leaf) * ''

Monstera deliciosa ''Monstera deliciosa'', the Swiss cheese plant or split-leaf philodendron is a species of flowering plant native to tropical forests of southern Mexico, south to Panama. It has been introduced to many tropical areas, and has become a mildly invas ...

'' (fruit) * '' Philodendron bipinnatifidum'' (flower) * '' Philodendron megalophyllum'' (flower) * '' Philodendron moonenii'' (flower) * '' Philodendron oblongum'' (flower) * '' Philodendron pedatum'' (flower) * ''

Philodendron propinquum ''Philodendron'' is a large genus of flowering plants in the family Araceae. , the Plants of the World Online accepted 621 species; other sources accept different numbers. Regardless of number of species, the genus is the second-largest member o ...

'' (flower) * ''

Pinellia ternata ''Pinellia ternata'' ( zh, 半夏, ), crow-dipper, is a plant that is native to China, Japan, and Korea. However, it also grows as an invasive weed in parts of Europe (Austria, Germany) and in North America (California, Ontario, the northeastern ...

'' (stem) * '' Pinellia pedatisecta'' (stem) * ''

Pistia stratiotes ''Pistia'' is a genus of aquatic plants in the arum family, Araceae. It is the sole genus in the tribe ''Pistieae'' which reflects its systematic isolation within the family. The single species it comprises, ''Pistia stratiotes'', is often call ...

'' (leaf) * ''

Spathiphyllum ''Spathiphyllum'' is a genus of about 60 species of monocotyledonous flowering plants in the family Araceae, native to tropical regions of the Americas and southeastern Asia. Certain species of ''Spathiphyllum'' are commonly known as spath or pea ...

'' * ''

Stenospermation longiopetiolatum ''Stenospermation'' is a genus of plant in family Araceae native to South America and Central America.Stevens, W. D., C. Ulloa Ulloa, A. Pool & O. M. Montiel. 2001. Flora de Nicaragua. Monographs in systematic botany from the Missouri Botanical G ...

'' (flower) * '' Syngonium schottianum'' (flower) * ''

Thaumatophyllum adamantinum ''Thaumatophyllum adamantinum'' is a plant in the genus ''Thaumatophyllum'', in the family Araceae. It is native to South America, namely to Southeast Brazil, but is also cultivated as a houseplant in cooler climates. Previously ''Thaumatophyllu ...

'' (flower) * ''

Thaumatophyllum brasiliense ''Thaumatophyllum'' (formerly '' Meconostigma'') is a genus of flowering plants in the arum family, Araceae. Its species are native to northern (tropical) South America. Taxonomy The genus ''Thaumatophyllum'' was erected by Heinrich Wilhelm Sch ...

'' (flower) * ''

Thaumatophyllum corcovadense ''Thaumatophyllum'' (formerly '' Meconostigma'') is a genus of flowering plants in the arum family, Araceae. Its species are native to northern (tropical) South America. Taxonomy The genus ''Thaumatophyllum'' was erected by Heinrich Wilhelm Sch ...

'' (flower) * ''

Thaumatophyllum dardanianum ''Thaumatophyllum'' (formerly '' Meconostigma'') is a genus of flowering plants in the arum family, Araceae. Its species are native to northern (tropical) South America. Taxonomy The genus ''Thaumatophyllum'' was erected by Heinrich Wilhelm Sch ...

'' (flower) * ''

Thaumatophyllum lundii ''Thaumatophyllum'' (formerly '' Meconostigma'') is a genus of flowering plants in the arum family, Araceae. Its species are native to northern (tropical) South America. Taxonomy The genus ''Thaumatophyllum'' was erected by Heinrich Wilhelm Sch ...

'' (flower) * '' Thaumatophyllum palaudicola'' (flower) * ''

Thaumatophyllum petraeum ''Thaumatophyllum'' (formerly '' Meconostigma'') is a genus of flowering plants in the arum family, Araceae. Its species are native to northern (tropical) South America. Taxonomy The genus ''Thaumatophyllum'' was erected by Heinrich Wilhelm Sch ...

'' (flower) * ''

Thaumatophyllum saxicola ''Philodendron saxicola'', the rock philodendron, is a species of flowering plant in the family Araceae. It is endemic to Bahia Bahia () is one of the 26 Federative units of Brazil, states of Brazil, located in the Northeast Region, Brazil, ...

'' (flower) * ''

Thaumatophyllum speciosum ''Thaumatophyllum speciosum'' is a species of plant in the family Araceae, native to Brazil and Bolivia Bolivia, officially the Plurinational State of Bolivia, is a landlocked country located in central South America. The country features d ...

'' (flower) * '' Thaumatophyllum tweedianum'' (flower) * ''

Thaumatophyllum uliginosum ''Thaumatophyllum'' (formerly ''Philodendron#Modern classification, Meconostigma'') is a genus of flowering plants in the arum family, Araceae. Its species are native to northern (tropical) South America. Taxonomy The genus ''Thaumatophyllum'' ...

'' (flower) * ''

Thaumatophyllum undulatum ''Thaumatophyllum'' (formerly '' Meconostigma'') is a genus of flowering plants in the arum family, Araceae. Its species are native to northern (tropical) South America. Taxonomy The genus ''Thaumatophyllum'' was erected by Heinrich Wilhelm Sch ...

'' (flower) * '' Thaumatophyllum williamsii'' (flower) * '' Typhonium flagelliforme'' (stem) * ''

Xanthosoma sagittifolium ''Xanthosoma sagittifolium'', or tannia, is a tropical flowering plant from the family Araceae. It produces an edible, starchy corm. ''X. sagittifolium'' is native to tropical America where it has been first cultivated. Around the 19th century, t ...

'' (root, stem, leaf) * '' Zantedeschia aethiopia'' (flower)

Araliaceae The Araliaceae are a family of flowering plants composed of about 43 genera and around 1500 species consisting of primarily woody plants and some herbaceous plants commonly called the ginseng family. The morphology of Araliaceae varies widely ...

: * '' Brassaia''

Arecaceae The Arecaceae () is a family (biology), family of perennial plant, perennial, flowering plants in the Monocotyledon, monocot order Arecales. Their growth form can be climbing palm, climbers, shrubs, tree-like and stemless plants, all commonly k ...

: * ''

Acrocomia aculeata ''Acrocomia aculeata'' is a species of palm native to the Neotropics. Common names Common names include grugru palm, ''gloo gloo'', ''corojo'', macaúba palm, coyol palm, and macaw palm; synonyms include ''A. lasiospatha, A. sclerocarpa'', and ' ...

'' (root, leaf, flower) * ''

Acrocomia crispa ''Acrocomia crispa'', also known as the Cuban belly palm or corojo, a palm species which is endemic to Cuba. Formerly placed in its own genus, ''Gastrococos'', recent work found that that genus was nested within ''Acrocomia''. It is a tall, s ...

'' (root, leaf, flower) * '' Acrocomia emensis'' (root, leaf, flower) * '' Acrocomia glaucensis'' (root, leaf, flower) * '' Acrocomia hassleri'' (root, leaf, flower) * '' Acrocomia intumescens'' (root, leaf, flower) * '' Acrocomia totai'' (root, leaf, flower) * '' Allagoptera campestris'' (leaf) * '' Ammandra decasperma'' (pseudopedicel) * '' Aphandra natalia'' (pseudopedicel) * '' Archontophoenix alexandrae'' (embryo) * ''

Areca catechu ''Areca catechu'' is a species of palm native to the Philippines cultivated for areca nuts. It was carried widely through the tropics by the Austronesian migrations and trade since at least 1500 BCE due to its use in betel nut chewing. ...

'' (embryo) * '' Areca macrocalyx'' (embryo) * '' Areca novohibernica'' (embryo) * ''

Arenga tremula ''Arenga'' is a genus of palms, native to Southeast Asia, southern China, New Guinea, and northern Australia. They are small to medium-sized palms, growing to 2–20 m tall, with pinnate leaves 2–12 m long. Arenga palms can grow in areas with ...

'' (embryo) * ''

Bactris gasipaes ''Bactris gasipaes'' is a species of Arecaceae, palm native to the tropical forests of Central America, Central and South America. It is well spread in these regions, where it is often cultivated by smallholders in agroforestry systems or more ...

'' (fruit) * '' Brassiophoenix dryomphloeides'' (embryo) * '' Butia buenopolensis'' (leaf, flower) * '' Butia campicola'' (leaf) * '' Butia capitata'' (leaf) * '' Butia catarinensis'' (leaf) * '' Butia exospadix'' (leaf) * '' Butia leptospatha'' (leaf) * '' Butia marmorii'' (leaf) * '' Butia microspadix'' (leaf) * '' Butia pubispatha'' (leaf) * ''

Calyptrocalyx albertisianus ''Calyptrocalyx'' is a genus of plants in the palm family Arecaceae, native to New Guinea and the nearby Maluku Islands. Ranging from small to large, the palms in this genus are increasingly found in cultivation owing largely to their purple, re ...

'' (fruit) * '' Calyptrocalyx hollrungii'' (embryo) * '' Calyptrocalyx lepidotus'' (fruit) * '' Calyptrocalyx spicatus'' (embryo) * '' Caryota cumingii'' (embryo) * ''

Caryota mitis ''Caryota mitis'', known as the clustering fishtail palm or fishtail palm, is a species of palm native to Tropical Asia from India to Java to southern China, now sparingly naturalized in southern Florida and in parts of Africa and Latin America. ...

'' (root, stem, leaf, flower, fruit) * ''

Caryota rumphiana ''Caryota rumphiana'', whose common names include the fishtail or Albert palm, is a '' Caryota'' or fish tail palm (Family Palmae or Arecaceae). It is native to Philippines, Sulawesi, Maluku, New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Bismarck Archipelago. ...

'' (stem, leaf) * '' Chamaedorea tepejilote'' (embryo) * ''

Cocos nucifera The coconut tree (''Cocos nucifera'') is a member of the palm tree family (Arecaceae) and the only living species of the genus ''Cocos''. The term "coconut" (or the archaic "cocoanut") can refer to the whole coconut palm, the seed, or the f ...

'' (root, stem, leaf) * '' Copernicia tectorum'' (flower, fruit) * '' Cyrtostachys renda'' (embryo) * '' Drymophloeus pachycladus'' (embryo) * '' Drymophloeus subdistichus'' (embryo) * '' Dypsis decaryi'' (embryo) * '' Dypsis leptocheilos'' (embryo) * ''

Dypsis lutescens ''Chrysalidocarpus lutescens'', also known by its synonym ''Dypsis lutescens'' and as golden cane palm, areca palm, yellow palm, butterfly palm, or bamboo palm, is a species of flowering plant in the family (biology), family Arecaceae, native pl ...

'' (embryo) * ''

Euterpe oleracea Euterpe (; , from + ) was one of the Muses in Greek mythology, presiding over music. In late Classical times, she was named muse of lyric poetry. She has been called "Giver of delight" by ancient poets. Mythology Euterpe was born as one of t ...

'' (embryo) * ''

Howea fosteriana ''Howea'' is a genus of two palms, '' H. belmoreana'' and '' H. forsteriana'', both endemic to Lord Howe Island, Australia. ''H. forsteriana'' in particular is commonly grown as an indoor plant in the Northern Hemisphere, and the two species for ...

'' (fruit) * '' Hydriastele rostrata'' (embryo) * '' Hyophorbe verschaffeltii'' * '' Iguanura sp. (embryo) * '' Laccospadix australasicus'' (fruit) * ''

Linospadix microcarya ''Linospadix microcaryus'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Arecaceae. It is found only in northeastern Queensland. It is threatened by habitat loss Habitat destruction (also termed habitat loss or habitat reduction) occurs w ...

'' (fruit) * '' Linospadix monostachya'' (fruit) * '' Livistonia saribus'' (embryo) * '' Normanbya normanbyi'' (embryo) * '' Oenocarpus bacaba'' (embryo) * '' Oenocarpus bataua'' (embryo) * '' Oncosperma horridum'' (embryo) * ''

Oncosperma tigillarium ''Oncosperma tigillarium'', commonly known as ''Nibong palm'' is an Asian species of palm tree in the family Arecaceae. Description ''Oncosperma tigillarium'' grows to 12m (possibly up to 30m) in height in dense thickets of up to 50 palm trees ...

'' (embryo) * '' Pelagodoxa henryana'' (fruit) * '' Pinanga coronata'' (embryo) * '' Pinanga negrosensis'' (embryo) * '' Pinanga malaiana'' (embryo) * '' Pinanga scortechinii'' (embryo) * '' Prestoea acuminata'' (embryo) * '' Ptychosperma caryotoides'' (embryo) * '' Rhapis excelsa'' (embryo) * ''

Solfia samoensis ''Balaka insularis'' is a rare species of flowering plant in the arecaceae, palm family endemic to Samoa. It was formerly placed in the monotypic genus ''Solfia'' with the species name ''Solfia samoensis''. It was placed in the genus ''Balaka (pl ...

'' (embryo)

Aspleniaceae The Aspleniaceae (spleenworts) are a family of ferns, included in the order Polypodiales. The composition and classification of the family have been subject to considerable changes. In particular, there is a narrow circumscription, Aspleniaceae ...

: * ''

Asplenium cardiophyllum ''Hymenasplenium cardiophyllum'' is a species of fern in the family Aspleniaceae. It is native to China and Japan. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests. It is threatened by habitat loss Habitat destruction ( ...

'' (leaf epidermis)

Asparagaceae Asparagaceae (), known as the asparagus family, is a family of flowering plants, placed in the order Asparagales of the monocots. The family name is based on the edible garden asparagus, '' Asparagus officinalis''. This family includes both ...

: * '' Agave debilis'' (root, leaf) * '' Agave geminiflora'' (flower) * '' Agave gracillima'' (root, leaf) * '' Agave guerrerensis'' (root, stem, leaf) * '' Agave guttata'' (root, leaf) * '' Agave hauniensis'' (root, leaf) * '' Agave howardii'' (flower) * '' Agave longiflora'' (root, stem, leaf) * '' Agave multicolor'' (flower) * '' Agave nanchititlensis'' (root, leaf) * '' Agave neonelsonii'' (flower) * '' Agave parrasana'' (leaf) * '' Agave platyphylla'' (flower) * '' Agave polycantha'' (flower) * '' Agave potosina'' (root, stem, leaf) * '' Agave pratensis'' (root, leaf) * '' Agave scabra'' (root, leaf) * '' Agave singuliflora'' (root, leaf) * '' Agave stictata'' (root, leaf) * ''

Agave tequilana ''Agave tequilana'', commonly called blue Weber agave () or tequila agave, is an agave plant that is an important economic product of Jalisco state of Mexico, due to its role as the base ingredient of tequila. The high production of agavins (bran ...

'' (root, leaf) * '' Agave victoriae-reginae'' (leaf) * ''Bellevalia paradoxa'' (leaf) * '' Chlorophytum orchidastrum'' * '' Cordyline terminalis'' (root, stem, leaf) * '' Dracaena sanderiana'' (leaf) * '' Hyacinthella nervosa'' (leaf) * '' Hyacinthella hispida'' (leaf) * '' Hyacinthella siirtensis'' (leaf) * '' Hyacinthella venusta'' (leaf) * '' Ornithogalum alpiganum'' (stem, leaf) * '' Ornithogalum caudatum'' (flower) * '' Polygonatum odoratum'' (leaf) * '' Polygonatum prattii'' (leaf) * '' Triteleia crocea'' (ovary) * '' Triteleia dudleyi'' (ovary) * '' Triteleia hendersonii'' (ovary) * '' Triteleia hyacintha'' (ovary) * '' Triteleia ixioides'' (ovary) * ''

Triteleia laxa ''Triteleia laxa'' (previously ''Brodiaea laxa'') is a triplet lily known by several common names, including Ithuriel's spear, common triteleia and grassnut. It is native to California where it is a common wildflower, and it is occasionally foun ...

'' (ovary) * '' Yucca treculiana'' (root)

Asphodelaceae Asphodelaceae is a family of flowering plants in the order Asparagales. Such a family has been recognized by most taxonomists, but the circumscription has varied widely. In its current circumscription in the APG IV system, it includes about 4 ...

: * '' Aloe harlana'' (leaf) * '' Aloe nobilis'' (leaf) * '' Asphodelus aestivus'' (root) * '' Gasteria obliqua'' (leaf) * ''

Haworthia cymbiformis ''Haworthia cymbiformis'' is a species of the genus ''Haworthia'' in the family Asphodelaceae, endemic to the Eastern Cape Province in South Africa. Description Plants are small and grow clumps of rosettes of thick, fleshy, light green leaves. ...

'' (leaf)

Asteraceae Asteraceae () is a large family (biology), family of flowering plants that consists of over 32,000 known species in over 1,900 genera within the Order (biology), order Asterales. The number of species in Asteraceae is rivaled only by the Orchi ...

: * '' Aster warmingii'' (root) * '' Baccharis glaziovii'' (stem) * ''

Silybum marianum ''Silybum marianum'' is a species of thistle. It has various common names including milk thistle, blessed milkthistle, Marian thistle, Mary thistle, Saint Mary's thistle, Mediterranean milk thistle, variegated thistle and Scotch thistle (not ...

'' (stem) * '' Solidago chilensis'' (stem)

Balsaminaceae The Balsaminaceae (commonly known as the balsam family) are a family of dicotyledonous plants, comprising two genera: ''Impatiens'', which consists of over 1000 species, and '' Hydrocera'', consisting of 1 species. The flowering plants may be an ...

: * '' Impatiens arguta'' (stem) * '' Impatiens balfourii'' (stem, leaf, flower) * '' Impatiens niamniamensis'' (stem) * '' Impatiens parviflora'' (flower) * '' Impatiens thomsonii'' (stem, leaf, flower)

Boraginaceae Boraginaceae, the Borago, borage or forget-me-not family, includes about 2,000 species of shrubs, trees, and herbs in 146 to 154 genus, genera with a worldwide distribution. The APG IV system from 2016 classifies the Boraginaceae as single famil ...

: * '' Onosma mollis'' (leaf) * '' Onosma sorgeri'' (leaf)

Bromeliaceae The Bromeliaceae (the bromeliads) are a family of monocot flowering plants of about 80 genera and 3700 known species, native mainly to the tropical Americas, with several species found in the American subtropics and one in tropical west Africa, ...

: * very widespread

Cactaceae A cactus (: cacti, cactuses, or less commonly, cactus) is a member of the plant family Cactaceae (), a family of the order Caryophyllales comprising about 127 genera with some 1,750 known species. The word ''cactus'' derives, through Latin, ...

: * widespread

Colchicaceae Colchicaceae is a family of flowering plant Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (). The term angiosperm is derived from the Ancient Greek, Greek words (; 'container, vessel') and (; ...

: * '' Colchicum kurdi'' (root)

: * '' Cochliostema odoratissimum'' (stem, leaf, flower) * '' Commelina coelestis'' (pollen) * '' Commelina tuberosa'' (pollen) * '' Dichorisandra thyrsiflora'' (anther) * '' Tinantia anomala'' (root, leaf, flower) * '' Tinantia pringlei'' (root, leaf, flower) * ''

Tradescantia ohiensis ''Tradescantia ohiensis'', commonly known as bluejacket or Ohio spiderwort, is an herbaceous plant species in the genus ''Tradescantia'' native to eastern and central North America. It is the most common and widely distributed species of ''Trade ...

'' (stem) * '' Tradescantia pallida'' (anther) * ''

Tradescantia spathacea ''Tradescantia spathacea'', also called the oyster plant, boatlily or 'Moses-in-the-cradle', is an herb in the Commelinaceae family which was first described in 1788. It is native to Belize, Guatemala, and southern México (Chiapas, Tabasco, and ...

'' (anther) * '' Triceratella''

Cucurbitaceae The Cucurbitaceae (), also called cucurbits or the gourd family, are a plant family (biology), family consisting of about 965 species in 101 genera.

: * '' Momordica dioica'' (stem) * '' Momordica cochinchinensis'' (stem) Dioscoreaceae: * '' Dioscorea bulbifera'' (root, bulbil) * '' Dioscorea esculenta'' (root) * '' Dioscorea hispida'' (root, petiole) * ''

Dioscorea japonica ''Dioscorea japonica'', known as East Asian mountain yam, yamaimo, or Japanese mountain yam, is a type of yam (vegetable), yam (''Dioscorea'') native to Japan (including Ryukyu Islands, Ryukyu and Bonin Islands), Korea, China, Taiwan, and Assam. ...

'' (root) * ''

Dioscorea polystachya ''Dioscorea polystachya'' or Chinese yam ( zh, s=山药, t=山藥), also called cinnamon-vine, is a species of flowering plant in the yam family. It is sometimes called Chinese potato or by its Korean name ''ma''. It is also called huaishan in M ...

'' (root, stem) Ebenaceae: * '' Diospyros montana'' (bark, fruit)

Euphorbiaceae Euphorbiaceae (), the spurge family, is a large family of flowering plants. In English, they are also commonly called euphorbias, which is also the name of Euphorbia, the type genus of the family. Most spurges, such as ''Euphorbia paralias'', ar ...

: * ''

Ricinus communis ''Ricinus communis'', the castor bean or castor oil plant, is a species of perennial flowering plant in the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae. It is the sole species in the monotypic genus, ''Ricinus'', and subtribe, Ricininae. The evolution of ca ...

'' (leaf)

Fabaceae Fabaceae () or Leguminosae,International Code of Nomen ...

: * '' Acacia robeorum'' (stem, leaf) * '' Medicago truncatula'' (leaf) * '' Pachyrhizus tuberosus'' (root) Haemodoraceae: * '' Anigozanthos flavidus'' (leaf, flower) * '' Conostylis candicans'' (flower)

Heliconiaceae ''Heliconia'' is a genus of flowering plants in the monotypic family Heliconiaceae. Most of the 194 known species are native to the tropical Americas, but a few are indigenous to certain islands of the western Pacific and Maluku in Indonesi ...

: * '' Heliconia indica'' (root, flower, fruit) * '' Heliconia longiflora'' (leaf)

Hydrangeaceae Hydrangeaceae is a family of flowering plants in the order Cornales, with a wide distribution in Asia and North America, and locally in southeastern Europe. Description The genera are characterised by leaves in opposite pairs (rarely whorled or ...

: * ''

Hydrangea macrophylla ''Hydrangea macrophylla'' is a species of flowering plant in the family (biology), family Hydrangeaceae, native plant, native and endemism, endemic to Japan. It is a deciduous shrub growing to tall by or more broad with large heads of pink or ...

'' (leaf)

Lamiaceae The Lamiaceae ( ) or Labiatae are a family (biology), family of flowering plants commonly known as the mint, deadnettle, or sage family. Many of the plants are aromatic in all parts and include widely used culinary herbs like basil (herb), ba ...

: * '' Satureja khuzestanica'' (leaf)

Liliaceae The lily family, Liliaceae, consists of about 15 genera and 610 species of flowering plants within the order Liliales. They are monocotyledonous, perennial, herbaceous, often bulbous geophytes. Plants in this family have evolved with a fai ...

: * ''

Drimia maritima ''Drimia maritima'' ( syn. ''Urginea maritima'') is a species of flowering plant in the family Asparagaceae, subfamily Scilloideae (formerly the family Hyacinthaceae). This species is known by several common names, including squill, sea squill, s ...

'' (leaf, flower bud) Lowiaceae: * '' Orchidantha maxillarioides'' (stem, leaf)

Marcgraviaceae The Marcgraviaceae are a neotropical angiosperm family in the order Ericales. The members of the family are shrubs, woody epiphytes, and lianas, with alternate, pinnately nerved leaves. The flowers are arranged in racemes. The flowers are accom ...

: * very widespread

Musaceae Musaceae is a family of flowering plants composed of three genera with about 91 known species, placed in the order Zingiberales. The family is native to the tropics of Africa and Asia. The plants have a large herbaceous growth habit with leaves w ...

: * ''

Musa acuminata ''Musa acuminata'' is a species of banana native to South Asia, Southern Asia, its range comprising the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. Many of the modern edible dessert bananas are derived from this species, although some are hybrids wi ...

'' (leaf, fruit) * '' Musa ingens'' (leaf, flower) * '' Musa maclayi'' (leaf, flower, fruit) Nyctaginaceae: * ''

Bougainvillea glabra ''Bougainvillea glabra'', the lesser bougainvillea or paperflower, is the most common species of bougainvillea used for bonsai. The epithet 'glabra' comes from Latin and means "bald". Description It is an evergreen, climbing shrub that usual ...

'' (leaf) * ''

Bougainvillea spectabilis ''Bougainvillea spectabilis'', also known as great bougainvillea, is a species of flowering plant. It is native to Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, and Argentina's Chubut Province. It is widely grown as an ornamental plant. Description ''Bougainvillea s ...

'' (leaf)

Oleaceae Oleaceae, also known as the olive family or sometimes the lilac family, is a taxonomic family of flowering shrubs, trees, and a few lianas in the order Lamiales. It presently comprises 28 genera, one of which is recently extinct.Peter S. Gree ...

: * very widespread

Onagraceae The Onagraceae are a family of flowering plants known as the willowherb family or evening primrose family. They include about 650 species of herbs, shrubs, and treesEpilobium tibetanum'' (leaf) * '' Ludwigia peploides'' (leaf)

Orchidaceae Orchids are plants that belong to the family (biology), family Orchidaceae (), a diverse and widespread group of flowering plants with blooms that are often colourful and fragrant. Orchids are cosmopolitan distribution, cosmopolitan plants that ...

: * very widespread

Pandanaceae Pandanaceae is a family of flowering plants native to the tropics and subtropics of the Old World, from West Africa to the Pacific. It contains 982 known species in five genera, of which the type genus, ''Pandanus'', is the most important, with s ...

: * '' Pandanus dubius'' (wood) * '' Pandanus leram'' (leaf) * ''

Pandanus tectorius ''Pandanus tectorius'' is a species of ''Pandanus'' (screwpine) that is native to Malesia, Papuasia, eastern Australia, and the Pacific Islands. It grows in the coastal lowlands typically near the edge of the ocean. Common names in English inclu ...

'' (wood)

Passifloraceae The Passifloraceae are a family of flowering plants, containing about 750 species classified in around 27 genera. They include trees, shrubs, lianas, and climbing plants, and are mostly found in tropical regions. The family takes its name from t ...

'': * '' Passiflora cincinnata'' (fruit) Philydraceae: * '' Heimholtzia glaberrima''

Piperaceae The Piperaceae (), also known as the pepper family, are a large family (biology), family of flowering plants. The group contains roughly 3,600 currently accepted species in five genera. The vast majority of species can be found within the two mai ...

: * '' Manekia incurva'' (leaf) * ''

Manekia sydowii ''Manekia'' is a genus of flowering plants in the Family (biology), family Piperaceae. It is distributed across disjunct areas in the southern Atlantics Forests of Brazil, the Guiana shield in Venezuela, the Andean regions of Colombia, Ecuador a ...

'' (leaf) * '' Peperomia fagerlindii'' (leaf) * '' Peperomia incana'' (leaf) * ''

Peperomia longespicata ''Peperomia'' is one of the two large genera of the family Piperaceae. It is estimated that there are at least over 1,000 species, occurring in all tropical and subtropical regions of the world. They are concentrated in South and Central America, ...

'' (leaf) * '' Peperomia macrostachya'' (leaf) * '' Peperomia serpens'' (leaf) * '' Peperomia vinasiana'' (leaf) * '' Piper augustum'' (leaf) * '' Piper betle'' (leaf) * '' Piper caldense'' (leaf, stem) * '' Piper cavendishioides'' (leaf) * ''

Piper chrysostachyum A piper is a musician, a player of the bagpipe. As a noun proper, Piper may also refer to: People * Piper (given name) * Piper (surname) Arts and entertainment Fictional characters Comics * Piper (Morlock), in the Marvel Universe * P ...

'' (leaf) * '' Piper cinereum'' (leaf) * '' Piper confusum'' (leaf) * '' Piper dotanum'' (leaf) * '' Piper eriopodon'' (leaf) * '' Piper filistium'' (leaf) * '' Piper glabrescens'' (leaf) * ''

Piper hispidum A piper is a musician, a player of the bagpipe. As a noun proper, Piper may also refer to: People * Piper (given name) * Piper (surname) Arts and entertainment Fictional characters Comics * Piper (Morlock), in the Marvel Universe * P ...

'' (leaf) * '' Piper lapathifolium'' (leaf) * '' Piper leucophyllum'' (leaf) * '' Piper mikanianum'' (leaf) * '' Piper munchanum'' (leaf) * '' Piper corrugatum'' (leaf) * ''

Piper peltatum ''Piper peltatum'', also known as ''Pothomorphe peltatum'', is a shrub of the drier Neotropics in the black pepper family Piperaceae. It grows to in height and has peltate leaves long and about wide. The inflorescences are vertical white spike ...

'' (leaf) * '' Piper pseudovariabile'' (leaf) * '' Piper sancti-felicis'' (leaf) * '' Piper umbellatum'' (leaf) * '' Piper urdanetanum'' (leaf) * ''

Piper oxystachyum A piper is a musician, a player of the bagpipe. As a noun proper, Piper may also refer to: People * Piper (given name) * Piper (surname) Arts and entertainment Fictional characters Comics * Piper (Morlock), in the Marvel Universe * P ...

'' (leaf) * '' Zippelia begoniifolia'' (leaf)

Poaceae Poaceae ( ), also called Gramineae ( ), is a large and nearly ubiquitous family of monocotyledonous flowering plants commonly known as grasses. It includes the cereal grasses, bamboos, the grasses of natural grassland and species cultivate ...

: * ''

Cenchrus echinatus ''Cenchrus echinatus'' is a species of grass known by the common names southern sandbur, spiny sandbur, southern sandspur, and in Australia, Mossman River grass.Polygonaceae The Polygonaceae are a Family (biology), family of flowering plants known Common name, informally as the knotweed family or smartweed—buckwheat family in the United States. The Botanical name, name is Basionym, based on the genus ''Polygonum'', ...

: * ''

Rheum rhabarbarum ''Rheum rhabarbarum'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Polygonaceae, native to a region stretching from southern Siberia to north and central China. It has been harvested from the wild for centuries for its root, which was harvested ...

Pontederiaceae Pontederiaceae is a Family (biology), family of flowering plants. The APG IV system of 2016 (unchanged from the APG III system of 2009, the APG II system of 2003 and the APG system of 1998) places the family in the order Commelinales, in the co ...

: * '' Monochoria africana'' (anther) * '' Pontederia cordata'' (root) * '' Pontederia crassipes'' (stem) Roridulaceae: * '' Roridula gorgonias'' (flower)

Rosaceae Rosaceae (), the rose family, is a family of flowering plants that includes 4,828 known species in 91 genera. The name is derived from the type genus '' Rosa''. The family includes herbs, shrubs, and trees. Most species are deciduous, but som ...

: * '' Rubus alutaceus'' (leaf)

Rubiaceae Rubiaceae () is a family (biology), family of flowering plants, commonly known as the coffee, madder, or bedstraw family. It consists of terrestrial trees, shrubs, lianas, or herbs that are recognizable by simple, opposite leaves with Petiole ( ...

: * very widespread

Tetrameristaceae Tetrameristaceae is a family of flowering plants. The family consists of three species, of trees or shrubs, in three genera: * '' Pelliciera'' in Central and South America * '' Pentamerista'' in the Guyanas * '' Tetramerista'' in Southeast Asia ...

: * '' Pelliciera rhizophorae'' (stem, flower) * '' Pentamerista neotropica'' (flower) * '' Tetramerista glabra'' (stem)

Typhaceae The Typhaceae () are a family of flowering plants, sometimes called the cattail family. The botanical name for the family has been recognized by most taxonomists. Description Members can be recognized as large marsh herbs with alternate two-rank ...

: * '' Typha angustifolia'' (leaf) * ''

Typha latifolia ''Typha latifolia'' is a perennial herbaceous wetland plant in the genus ''Typha''. It is known in English as bulrushStreeter D, Hart-Davies C, Hardcastle A, Cole F, Harper L. 2009. ''Collins Flower Guide''. Harper Collins (sometimes as common b ...

'' (leaf)

Vitaceae The Vitaceae are a family of flowering plants, with 14 genera and around 910 known species, including common plants such as Vitis, grapevines (''Vitis'' spp.) and Parthenocissus quinquefolia, Virginia creeper (''Parthenocissus quinquefolia''). Th ...

: * '' Cissus alata'' (leaf) * '' Cissus discolor'' (leaf) * '' Cissus quadrangularis'' (leaf) * '' Cissus repanda'' (leaf) * '' Cissus rotundifolia'' (leaf) * '' Parthenocissus quinquefolia'' (leaf) * ''

Parthenocissus tricuspidata ''Parthenocissus tricuspidata'' is a species of flowering plant in the grape family (Vitaceae) native to eastern Asia (Korea, Japan, and northern and eastern China), where it thrives in floodplain bushes, riverside woodland and moist mountain m ...

'' (leaf) * '' Parthenocissus vitacea'' (leaf) * '' Rhoicissus tomentosa'' (leaf) * '' Tetrastigma voinierianum'' (leaf) * '' Vitis berlandieri'' (root) * ''

Vitis rupestris ''Vitis rupestris'' is a species of grape native to the United States that is known by many common names including July, Coon, sand, sugar, beach, bush, currant, ingar, rock, and mountain grape. It is used for breeding several French-American hy ...

'' (anther) * ''

Vitis vinifera ''Vitis vinifera'', the common grape vine, is a species of flowering plant, native to the Mediterranean Basin, Mediterranean region, Central Europe, and southwestern Asia, from Morocco and Portugal north to southern Germany and east to northern ...

'' (leaf)

References

Bibliography

* See ''Supporting Information''. * * {{Cite journal , year=2004 , last=Keating , first=Richard C. , title=Systematic Occurrence of Raphide Crystals in Araceae. , url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3298626 , journal=Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden , language=en , volume=91 , issue=3 , pages=495–504 , jstor=3298626 Plant physiology Oxalate minerals Organic minerals Plant toxins

Calcium oxalate in plants

Harmful effects

Plants containing raphides

See also

References

Bibliography