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The
Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
was heavily dependent on
rail transport Rail transport (also known as train transport) is a means of transport using wheeled vehicles running in railway track, tracks, which usually consist of two parallel steel railway track, rails. Rail transport is one of the two primary means of ...
, not least during the
Russian Civil War The Russian Civil War () was a multi-party civil war in the former Russian Empire sparked by the 1917 overthrowing of the Russian Provisional Government in the October Revolution, as many factions vied to determine Russia's political future. I ...
and
World War II World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
, but also for industrialization according to the
five-year plans Five-year plan may refer to: Nation plans * Five-year plans of the Soviet Union, a series of nationwide centralized economic plans in the Soviet Union * Five-Year Plans of Argentina, under Peron (1946–1955) * Five-Year Plans of Bhutan, a series ...
. During the Soviet era, freight rail traffic increased 55 times (over that of the
Russian Empire The Russian Empire was an empire that spanned most of northern Eurasia from its establishment in November 1721 until the proclamation of the Russian Republic in September 1917. At its height in the late 19th century, it covered about , roughl ...
just before
World War I World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...
), passenger traffic increased by almost 10 times and the length of the rail network almost doubled in size in this time as well. The Soviet Union had a railway network of (excluding industrial railways), of which were electrified.


Pre-war industrialization period, 1928–1942

After the foundation of the
Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
the
People's Commissariat A People's Commissariat (; Narkomat) was a structure in the Soviet state (in the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, in other union and autonomous republics, in the Soviet Union) from 1917–1946 which functioned as the central executive ...
of Railways (NKPS) (after 1946 renamed the Ministry of Railways (МПС)), the railway network expanded to a total length of 106,100 km by 1940 (vs. 81,000 km in 1917 which was exceeded in length only by the United States). The volume of freight hauled (in tonne-km) increased over fourfold during this period. Railways and control of railways had been a major factor in the
Russian Civil War The Russian Civil War () was a multi-party civil war in the former Russian Empire sparked by the 1917 overthrowing of the Russian Provisional Government in the October Revolution, as many factions vied to determine Russia's political future. I ...
and the
Red Army The Workers' and Peasants' Red Army, often shortened to the Red Army, was the army and air force of the Russian Soviet Republic and, from 1922, the Soviet Union. The army was established in January 1918 by a decree of the Council of People ...
's eventual victory in the conflict. A notable project of the late 1920s, which became one of the centrepieces of the
first five-year plan First five-year plan may refer to: * First five-year plan (China) * First Five-Year Plans (Pakistan) * First five-year plan (Soviet Union) The first five-year plan (, ) of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was a list of economi ...
, was the
Turkestan–Siberia Railway The Turkestan–Siberian Railway (commonly abbreviated as the ''Turk–Sib'', , , ; ) is a Russian gauge, broad gauge railway that connects Central Asia with Siberia. It starts north of Tashkent in Uzbekistan at Arys, Kazakhstan, Arys, where it ...
, linking
Western Siberia Western Siberia or West Siberia ( rus, Западная Сибирь, p=ˈzapədnəjə sʲɪˈbʲirʲ; , ) is a region in North Asia. It is part of the wider region of Siberia that is mostly located in the Russia, Russian Federation, with a Sout ...
via Eastern
Kazakhstan Kazakhstan, officially the Republic of Kazakhstan, is a landlocked country primarily in Central Asia, with a European Kazakhstan, small portion in Eastern Europe. It borders Russia to the Kazakhstan–Russia border, north and west, China to th ...
with
Uzbekistan , image_flag = Flag of Uzbekistan.svg , image_coat = Emblem of Uzbekistan.svg , symbol_type = Emblem of Uzbekistan, Emblem , national_anthem = "State Anthem of Uzbekistan, State Anthem of the Republ ...
. In the late 1920s, the young
Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
under
Joseph Stalin Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin (born Dzhugashvili; 5 March 1953) was a Soviet politician and revolutionary who led the Soviet Union from 1924 until Death and state funeral of Joseph Stalin, his death in 1953. He held power as General Secret ...
embarked on a programme of rapid industrialization. In a 1931 speech, in which Stalin promoted intensive industrialization, he concluded that "We are fifty or a hundred years behind the advanced countries. We must make good this distance in ten years. Either we do it, or we shall be crushed." But if industrialization generally was to be given first priority, the question arose as to what priority should be given to railway development specifically, keeping in mind that industrialization requires greatly increased rail transportation of goods, e.g. iron ore and coal for steel mills. An example of this was the "Ural-Kuznetsk metallurgical combine" (approved in 1928) where the source of coal was located over 2000 km from the source of iron ore. Not only that, but the steel output had to be transported long distances to its final point of use. A British railway historian claims that the Soviet objective was to limit investment in railway improvements so that railways could barely meet the new and heavy demands for increased transport placed on them by industrialization, thereby allowing more capital for such industrialization. While there were significant investments made in railways, they were not enough to avoid the failure at times to transport all the goods, especially in early 1931 and 1933. Some of the resulting supply-line crises resulted in production shut-downs. However, in other cases "crisis" was used to describe a situation where the stocks of inputs stored at a plant (such as iron ore at a steel mill) almost ran out due to the railway's failure to deliver on time; no substantial harm would be done to production output, but it would be a close call. Near the start of first five-year plan of industrialization (1928) there were four main railway decision makers: the government, the party,
Gosplan The State Planning Committee, commonly known as Gosplan ( ), was the agency responsible for economic planning, central economic planning in the Soviet Union. Established in 1921 and remaining in existence until the dissolution of the Soviet Unio ...
(the Soviet
central planning A planned economy is a type of economic system where investment, production and the allocation of capital goods takes place according to economy-wide economic plans and production plans. A planned economy may use centralized, decentralized, ...
agency), and the railway ministry (known as NKPS). When the NKPS didn't seem to be able to cope with a situation, the party or government would intervene. The majority agreed on increasing investments, but there was no clear consensus on how these investments were to be used.
Gosplan The State Planning Committee, commonly known as Gosplan ( ), was the agency responsible for economic planning, central economic planning in the Soviet Union. Established in 1921 and remaining in existence until the dissolution of the Soviet Unio ...
advocated the
rationalization Rationalization may refer to: * Rationalization (economics), an attempt to change an ''ad hoc'' workflow into one based on published rules; also, jargon for a reduction in staff * Rationalisation (mathematics), the process of removing a square roo ...
of the railways, coupled with
tariffs A tariff or import tax is a duty imposed by a national government, customs territory, or supranational union on imports of goods and is paid by the importer. Exceptionally, an export tax may be levied on exports of goods or raw materials and is ...
based on actual cost, which would reduce traffic demand and provide funds for investment. In 1931, in a Central Committee (CC) resolution proposed recapitalization (replacing all the ties, rails, and renewing the ballast by either cleaning or new ballast) to create some "super mainlines" which would be electrified. This resolution was never adequately carried out, and the actual electrification achieved was only about a tenth of that proposed. The Central Committee sent
Lazar Kaganovich Lazar Moiseyevich Kaganovich (; – 25 July 1991) was a Soviet politician and one of Joseph Stalin's closest associates. Born to a Jewish family in Ukraine, Kaganovich worked as a shoemaker and joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party ...
to solve the railway crisis in 1935. Kaganovich first prioritized
bottleneck Bottleneck may refer to: * the narrowed portion (neck) of a bottle Science and technology * Bottleneck (engineering), where the performance of an entire system is limited by a single component * Bottleneck (network), in a communication network * ...
areas over other less-traveled lines; his second priority was investing in heavy traffic lines, and thirdly, other lines (which were also burdened with increases traffic) were left to fend for themselves. Another problem facing rail transport was the massive industrialization efforts pushed on by the authorities. This industrialization placed a heavy burden upon the railways, and
Vyacheslav Molotov Vyacheslav Mikhaylovich Molotov (; – 8 November 1986) was a Soviet politician, diplomat, and revolutionary who was a leading figure in the government of the Soviet Union from the 1920s to the 1950s, as one of Joseph Stalin's closest allies. ...
and Kaganovich even admitted this to the 18th party congress.


Modal shares in 1940; rail dominates

At the end of the pre-war period in 1940, railroads held an 85% share of freight transport (tonne-km) and a 92% share of intercity passenger transport (passenger-km). For non-rail transport it was: Freight (in tonne-km): river 7%, sea 5%, truck 2%, pipeline under 1%. For passengers: Bus 3.5%, river 3%, sea 1%, air 0.2%. So rail was by far the dominant mode of transportation for both passengers and freight. In the United States in 1940, rail still dominated freight with a 61% share, but only had a 7.5% share of passenger travel, having lost most of this traffic to the automobile.


Rail traffic in Soviet Union


Rail freight traffic in the Soviet Union

The graph compares the freight traffic (in tonne-km) of the USSR to the US. The USSR rebuilt its rail system and industrialized with
five-year plans Five-year plan may refer to: Nation plans * Five-year plans of the Soviet Union, a series of nationwide centralized economic plans in the Soviet Union * Five-Year Plans of Argentina, under Peron (1946–1955) * Five-Year Plans of Bhutan, a series ...
. As a result, railway freight grew about 20 times from 20 to 400 billion tonne-km by 1941. But then disaster struck again,
World War II World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
began. In the first year or so of the war, traffic plummeted to about half its prewar value. But then the USSR started restoring and constructing railways during wartime so that by the end of the war about half of the lost traffic had been recovered. After the war was over it took a few more years to restore the railways and get back to the pre-war level of traffic. Then the USSR embarked on a series of more five-year plans, and railway traffic rapidly increased. By 1954 their rail freight traffic (about 850 billion tonne-km) surpassed that of the United States and the USSR then hauled more rail freight than any other country in the world. Railway freight continued to rapidly increase in the USSR so that by 1960 the USSR was hauling about half of all railway freight in the world (in tonne-km) and they did this on a rail system consisting of 10% of the world's railway kilometrage.Плакс, p.5 The status of hauling half the world's railway freight continued for almost thirty years, but in 1988 railway freight traffic peaked at 3852 billion tonne-km (nearly 4 trillion). This rapid growth may seem impressive, but it was also in some senses a failure, since railway traffic at times did not grow fast enough to satisfy demand, partly due to congestion. In 1991 the Soviet Union fell apart and its largest republic, the Russian Federation, which then hauled about 2/3 of the traffic of the former USSR, became an independent country. For the
USSR The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
in 1989, shortly before the collapse of Soviet Union, the railway hauled nearly eight times as much tonne-km of freight by rail as they did by lorry. In 1991 a law was passed which declared that railways were the basic transport system of the USSR. While
highway A highway is any public or private road or other public way on land. It includes not just major roads, but also other public roads and rights of way. In the United States, it is also used as an equivalent term to controlled-access highway, or ...
s were more popular in the United States rather than railways, in contrast the Soviet Union had little or no highway system to speak of.


Rail passenger traffic in the Soviet Union

This plot compares the volume of rail passenger transportation in the
Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
and the United States (United States). Since the Soviet Union was created in late 1922, the curve prior to this is the estimated volume of passenger transport in the "pre-Soviet territory" defined as being within the borders of the Soviet Union of the late 1930s (before the annexations per the secret protocol of the
Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, officially the Treaty of Non-Aggression between Germany and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, and also known as the Hitler–Stalin Pact and the Nazi–Soviet Pact, was a non-aggression pact between Nazi Ge ...
). In the early years of the 20th century rail dominated passenger transport so the start of this graph implies that there was about twice as much passenger transport in the United States as in the pre-Soviet
Russian Empire The Russian Empire was an empire that spanned most of northern Eurasia from its establishment in November 1721 until the proclamation of the Russian Republic in September 1917. At its height in the late 19th century, it covered about , roughl ...
. But in the early 1920s in the US, the automobile started to provide more passenger transportation than rail. In the US, auto's share rapidly increased so that by the early 1960s auto travel was over 100 times rail passenger travel. Thus one may mentally multiply the US rail curve after the early 1960s by a factor of over 100 to get the total passenger-km in the US. Although Soviet passenger travel by rail became several times that of the US, the total passenger travel in the US was many times larger than for the Soviet Union. After about 1960, most of the USA rail travel shown in the USA-USSR graph is commuter train travel of (mostly) people going to and from work and not long-distance travel (
Amtrak The National Railroad Passenger Corporation, Trade name, doing business as Amtrak (; ), is the national Passenger train, passenger railroad company of the United States. It operates intercity rail service in 46 of the 48 contiguous United Stat ...
). While air travel in the USA overtook rail travel in the mid 1950s, in the Soviet Union of the late 1980s, rail volume was double that of air travel.
World War II World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
hit both the USA and the USSR in 1941 with opposite results for rail passengers. In the US, gasoline rationing resulted in a surge of rail passengers with almost a third of passenger traffic going by rail. The impact on the
USSR The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
was just the opposite. The invasion of Germany deep into the USSR along with German bombing of railroads, took its toll and greatly reduced passenger rail travel. It was planned in 1990 to increase the passenger-kilometers of travel to 465 billion by 1995 and to 500 billion by 2000, but it didn't happen since the USSR collapsed in 1991.


World War II

During
World War II World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
the railway system played a vital role in the war effort transporting military personnel, equipment and freight to the front lines and often evacuating entire factories and towns from European Russia to the Ural region and
Siberia Siberia ( ; , ) is an extensive geographical region comprising all of North Asia, from the Ural Mountains in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east. It has formed a part of the sovereign territory of Russia and its predecessor states ...
. The loss of mining and industrial centers of the western Soviet Union necessitated speedy construction of new railways during the wartime. Particularly notable among them was the railway to the Arctic coal mines of
Vorkuta Vorkuta (; ; Nenets languages, Nenets for "the abundance of bears", "bear corner") is a coal-mining types of inhabited localities in Russia, town in the Komi Republic, Russia, situated just north of the Arctic Circle in the Pechora coal basin a ...
, extended after the war to
Labytnangi Labytnangi (; from Khanty: ; lit. ''seven larches''; Nenets: Лабытнаӈгы. ''Labytnaŋgy'') is a town in Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug, Russia, located on the left bank of the Ob River, northwest of Salekhard. Population: History It ...
on the
Ob River The Ob (; ) is a major river in Russia. It is in western Siberia, and with its tributary the Irtysh forms the world's seventh-longest river system, at . The Ob forms at the confluence of the Biya and Katun which have their origins in the Alta ...
; construction work to extend it all the way to the Yenisey continued into the 1950s, aborted with the death of
Joseph Stalin Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin (born Dzhugashvili; 5 March 1953) was a Soviet politician and revolutionary who led the Soviet Union from 1924 until Death and state funeral of Joseph Stalin, his death in 1953. He held power as General Secret ...
. As a result of Japan's loss in
World War II World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
, the southern half of
Sakhalin Island Sakhalin ( rus, Сахали́н, p=səxɐˈlʲin) is an island in Northeast Asia. Its north coast lies off the southeastern coast of Khabarovsk Krai in Russia, while its southern tip lies north of the Japanese island of Hokkaido. An islan ...
was annexed by
Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
in 1945. The railway network built by the Japanese during their forty years of control of southern Sakhalin now became part of Soviet Railways as well (as a separate
Sakhalin Railway Sakhalin Railway () is a division of the Far Eastern Railway that primarily serves Sakhalin Island. Due to its island location, the railway is the second isolated 1520mm gauge network in Russia, like the Norilsk railway. The only main connectio ...
), the only gauge rail system within USSR (or today's Russia). The original Japanese D51 steam locomotives were used by the Soviet Railways on
Sakhalin Island Sakhalin ( rus, Сахали́н, p=səxɐˈlʲin) is an island in Northeast Asia. Its north coast lies off the southeastern coast of Khabarovsk Krai in Russia, while its southern tip lies north of the Japanese island of Hokkaido. An islan ...
until 1979, together with regauged ShA
USATC S160 Class The United States Army Transportation Corps S160 Class is a class of 2-8-0, 2-8-0 Consolidation steam locomotive, designed for heavy freight work in Europe during World War II. A total of 2,120 were built and they worked on railroads across much ...
locomotives.


Post-war development

After the war the Soviet railway network was re-built and further expanded to more than 145,000 km of track by major additions such as
Baikal Amur Mainline Lake Baikal is a rift lake and the deepest lake in the world. It is situated in southern Siberia, Russia between the Federal subjects of Russia, federal subjects of Irkutsk Oblast, Irkutsk Oblasts of Russia, Oblast to the northwest and the Repu ...
. Soviet rail transport eventually became, after
World War II World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
, the most heavily used rail system in the world, surpassing all of its
First World The concept of the First World was originally one of the " Three Worlds" formed by the global political landscape of the Cold War, as it grouped together those countries that were aligned with the Western Bloc of the United States. This groupin ...
counterparts. However the rail network of the United States was a few times longer but had less traffic. The Soviet railway system was growing in size, at a rate of 639 km a year from 1965 to 1980. This steady growth in rail transport can be explained by the country's need to extract its
natural resources Natural resources are resources that are drawn from nature and used with few modifications. This includes the sources of valued characteristics such as commercial and industrial use, aesthetic value, scientific interest, and cultural value. ...
, most of which were located close to, or in
Siberia Siberia ( ; , ) is an extensive geographical region comprising all of North Asia, from the Ural Mountains in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east. It has formed a part of the sovereign territory of Russia and its predecessor states ...
. While some problems with the railways had been reported by the Soviet press, the Soviet Union could boast of controlling one of the most electrified railway systems at the time. During much of the country's later lifespan, trains usually carried
coal Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock, formed as rock strata called coal seams. Coal is mostly carbon with variable amounts of other Chemical element, elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen. Coal i ...
,
oil An oil is any nonpolar chemical substance that is composed primarily of hydrocarbons and is hydrophobic (does not mix with water) and lipophilic (mixes with other oils). Oils are usually flammable and surface active. Most oils are unsaturate ...
,
construction material This is a list of building materials. Many types of building materials are used in the construction industry to create buildings and structures. These categories of materials and products are used by architects and construction project manager ...
(mostly stone, cement and sand) and
timber Lumber is wood that has been processed into uniform and useful sizes (dimensional lumber), including beams and planks or boards. Lumber is mainly used for construction framing, as well as finishing (floors, wall panels, window frames). ...
. Oil and oil products were one of the key reasons for building railway infrastructure in Siberia in the first place. The efficiency of the railways improved over time, and by the 1980s Soviet railways had become the most intensively used in the world. Most Soviet citizens did not own
private transport Private transport (as opposed to public transport) is the personal or individual use of transportation which are not available for use by the general public, where in theory the user can decide freely on the time and route of transit ('choice ...
, and if they did, it was difficult to drive long distances due to the poor conditions of many roads. Another explanation has to do with Soviet policy, the first being the autarkic model created by
Joseph Stalin Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin (born Dzhugashvili; 5 March 1953) was a Soviet politician and revolutionary who led the Soviet Union from 1924 until Death and state funeral of Joseph Stalin, his death in 1953. He held power as General Secret ...
's regime. Stalin's regime instead of building major new railway lines decided instead to conserve, and later expand, much of the existing railways left behind by the
Tsar Tsar (; also spelled ''czar'', ''tzar'', or ''csar''; ; ; sr-Cyrl-Latn, цар, car) is a title historically used by Slavic monarchs. The term is derived from the Latin word '' caesar'', which was intended to mean ''emperor'' in the Euro ...
s. However, as
Lev Voronin Lev Alekseyevich Voronin (; 22 February 1928 – 24 June 2008) was a Soviet and Russian official. He served as a First Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers, literally the Vice-Premier of the Soviet Union, from 1989 to 1990. Responsible fo ...
, a
First Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union The first deputy premier of the Soviet Union was the deputy head of government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). Despite the title, the office was not always held by a single individual. The office bore three different titles thr ...
, noted in a speech to the
Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union The Supreme Soviet of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (SSUSSR) was the highest body of state authority of the Soviet Union (USSR) from 1936 to 1991. Based on the principle of unified power, it was the only branch of government in the So ...
in 1989 that the railway sector was the "main negative sector of the economy in 1989". As industrial output declined in the late-1980s so did the demand for transportation.


Comparison to the United States

The efficiency of the Soviet Railways improved over time and by the 1980s had many performance indicators superior to the United States. Railway built in the USSR were planned, and in contrast to the US, only a single railway line would be constructed between major cities. This avoided the situation in the US where two (or sometimes more) railway companies would construct lines that more or less paralleled each other resulting in wasteful duplication of effort. Many of the rail lines in the USSR were inherited from the Russian Empire which had also avoided such duplication. As a result of having a shorter rail system plus more freight traffic, the USSR had a freight traffic density (in ton-km per km of line) 6-7 times higher than the US.Шаферин pp.18 In the US, the mean daily freight car mileage was only 95 km. vs. 227 km. for the USSR. For freight locomotives it was 360 km. vs. 425 km. The percent of freight car miles that ran empty was 41% for the US vs. 29% for the USSR. It was claimed that labor productivity rose 4.3 fold between 1955 and 1980, resulting in the USSR being roughly the same as the US (after taking into account that the USSR hauled a greater proportion of non-bulk commodities which were more labor-intensive to haul—more switching of cars, etc.). The Soviet Union made the transition to automatic brakes and couplers ( model SA3) long after the United States did and as a result their brakes and couplers were somewhat more advanced. Their (air) brakes could operate in a mode where it was possible to slowly reduce braking effort, while the US system required full release of the brakes (in the entire train) and reapplication of the brakes in order to reduce braking effort. The Soviet Union developed advanced machinery for track maintenance and renewal such as a Continuous Action Tamping Machine which in 1977 could move at 3 km/h and also straighten the track and dress the
ballast Ballast is dense material used as a weight to provide stability to a vehicle or structure. Ballast, other than cargo, may be placed in a vehicle, often a ship or the gondola of a balloon or airship, to provide stability. A compartment within ...
. It was model ВПО-3000 (VPO-3000) and at that time no such machinery like this existed outside of the Soviet Union. It was claimed to be several times faster than non-Soviet tamping machinery of cyclical action. However, the reliability of locomotives in the USSR was much worse than for the US.Article in ЖТ (Didn't note which issue) Their high traffic density often resulted in traffic congestion and delays, especially after an accident blocked the line.


Congestion and failure to transport


Harm to the Soviet Economy

The railway system in the Soviet Union (mostly after the 1920s) was utilized several times more intensively than the railways of developed capitalist countries. The high traffic volumes per kilometer of line resulted in congestion problems that at times became so severe that goods available for transport could not be shipped and factories, etc. were forced to slow production. This happened in the 1930s and during the so-called
Brezhnev stagnation The "Era of Stagnation" (, or ) is a term coined by Mikhail Gorbachev in order to describe the negative way in which he viewed the economic, political, and social policies of the Soviet Union that began during the rule of Leonid Brezhnev (1964 ...
starting in the late 1970s and beyond. In 1989 the President of the Council of Ministers of the USSR stated that economists estimate that the failure of railways to provide adequate transportation, costs the Soviet economy 10-12 billion roubles per year.


Train flow basics

The flow on a transportation route (in tons/hour, trains/day, etc.) is simply equal to the product of velocity and linear density (gross tons/meter or trains/km etc.). For a railway line as a whole (in one direction), one would use the average linear density along the whole line, where most points on the line have no trains on them and thus have zero density there. One would also need to use the average velocity which turns out to be the
weighted harmonic mean In mathematics, the harmonic mean is a kind of average, one of the Pythagorean means. It is the most appropriate average for ratios and rates such as speeds, and is normally only used for positive arguments. The harmonic mean is the reciprocal ...
where the weights are the lengths of the various segments of the train run (with the speed approximately constant on each segment). Another way to find the average velocity is to simply find the
weighted arithmetic mean The weighted arithmetic mean is similar to an ordinary arithmetic mean (the most common type of average), except that instead of each of the data points contributing equally to the final average, some data points contribute more than others. Th ...
where the weights in this case are the times on each segment. For a segment of a train run where the speed is very slow, the train thus spends a long time traversing this segment and thus the weight for this segment is quite high (since it is weighted by time). Thus even though the slow speed segments are only a small part of the trip, they may drastically reduce the average speed (and thus the flow). So there are two basic ways to increase flow: 1. increase the speed 2. increase the density. One way to significantly increase speed on a high traffic line is to reduce the number of times a train must stop (or slow) to allow other trains to pass, especially on a single track line where opposing trains must go past each other. To increase density, one may increase train length, increase the linear load capacity of freight cars, and/or decrease the spacing between trains. But the
Automatic block signalling Automatic block signaling (ABS), spelled automatic block signalling or called track circuit block (TCB ) in the UK, is a railroad communications system that consists of a series of Railway signal, signals that divide a railway line into a seri ...
system tends to maintain a minimum distance between trains (moving under the green signal aspect). Trains may follow each other more closely if they move into the amber (or yellow) signal aspect but then they must move at a slower speed. On single track lines between passing sidings, trains can't travel in opposite directions at the same time. If they tried to do this, they would collide head on with each other (if they were headed toward each other). This poses a further restriction in train spacing.


Ways to increase capacity

There are various ways to permit rail freight flow capacity to increase, thus reducing congestion. But they are easier said than done. One is to increase the average density of freight on a rail line by increasing train weight/length. Another way is to decrease the distance (spacing) between successive trains. Still another way is to increase speed, including elimination of trains stopping.


Increasing freight flow by increasing density

One expedient is to reduce the spacing between 2 or 3 trains to zero by running "connected" trains. One simply couples two or more trains together without connecting the braking systems of the 2 trains. The locomotive crews then coordinate their handling of the train by radio possibly using a special device to synchronize braking.Тихомирова p. 190 If they don't coordinate properly, the combined train can derail due to high forces in the train. This method was used in the Soviet Union mostly as a temporary expedient(especially in cases where a length of track was temporarily closed for maintenance work). But on the
Bratsk Bratsk (, ; ) is a Types of inhabited localities in Russia, city in Irkutsk Oblast, Russia, located on the Angara, Angara River near the vast Bratsk Reservoir. It had population of . Etymology The name of the city, which is from the same ro ...
division of the BAM railroad, it was used as a standard method of operation in the 1970s. In the mid-1980s about 70% of the Soviet network was single track lines. It was proposed to select two large end stations on a single track line that have enough trackage to hold several trains. Then opposing trains accumulate at such stations and the trains that accumulated at one end station then proceed down the rail line closely spaced (a packet of trains) while traffic in the opposite opposing direction is spread out and yields (by pausing in the passing sidings) so that the packet of trains can travel non-stop over a significant distance. Later on, a non-stop packet can be formed in the other direction, etc. Using packets to increase capacity was common in the
USSR The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
.


Railway labour


Amenities for rail workers

Especially in the 1970s, some railway depots/shops began to provide a much improved working environment and whole books were written on this subject, sometimes called "production esthetics" (производственная эстетика). An example was at the mechanised track maintenance station ПМС-121 (PMS-121) (in 2013 ЦМПР) near
Kyiv Kyiv, also Kiev, is the capital and most populous List of cities in Ukraine, city of Ukraine. Located in the north-central part of the country, it straddles both sides of the Dnieper, Dnieper River. As of 1 January 2022, its population was 2, ...
in
Ukraine Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the List of European countries by area, second-largest country in Europe after Russia, which Russia–Ukraine border, borders it to the east and northeast. Ukraine also borders Belarus to the nor ...
. For the workers they installed showers, a shoe repair shop, a barber shop, a laundry, a small shop, a social club with a capacity for 200 people, a lounge, and an art studio. In the track assembly plant (they prefabricated lengths of track, with rails attached to sleepers/ties) they installed facilities for heating (and eating) food, a reading room and a billiard room. They also provided improved amenities when workers traveled to work on remote sections of track and lived in sleeping cars. As a result of the improved amenities, it is claimed that employee turnover was reduced from 63% (per year) to 11%. Production esthetics included planting of greenery, providing proper lighting and pleasant colours, background music and sports areas.


Uniforms and insignia

Uniforms with grade insignia were introduced for rail workers during the period 1932–1934."Форменный костюм советских железнодорожников 1932–1934 годов." ''Мундир No.1/2013 (10)''.
Retrieved 2017-08-27.
Personal ranks were introduced in 1943. Personal ranks were abolished in 1954.


Grade insignia for rail workers under the People's Commissariat of Transport, 1934–1943

Worn on collar patches.


Grade insignia for rail workers under the industrial commissariats, 1936–1943

Worn on the lower sleeves of the uniform coat.


Railway rank insignia 1943–1955

Worn on shoulder straps.


Grade insignia for rail workers 1955–1963

Worn on collar patches. A = Minister of Railways; B = First Deputy Minister of Railways, C = Deputy Minister of Railways; 1 = Locomotive Engineer First Class; 2 = Locomotive Engineer Second Class; 3 = Locomotive Engineer Third Class.


Grade insignia for rail workers 1963–1973

Worn on the lower sleeves of the uniform coat.


Grade insignia for rail workers 1973–1979

Worn on the lower sleeves of the uniform coat.


Grade insignia for rail workers 1979–1985

Worn on the lower sleeves of the uniform coat.


Commuter services

The Soviet
rapid transit Rapid transit or mass rapid transit (MRT) or heavy rail, commonly referred to as metro, is a type of high-capacity public transport that is generally built in urban areas. A grade separation, grade separated rapid transit line below ground su ...
system was seen as the cheapest way of
urban transport Public transport (also known as public transit, mass transit, or simply transit) are forms of transport available to the general public. It typically uses a fixed schedule, route and charges a fixed fare. There is no rigid definition of whic ...
, and eventually another point acquired greater significance; the authorities could allocate their resources from the
automobile industry The automotive industry comprises a wide range of companies and organizations involved in the design, development, manufacturing, marketing, selling, repairing, and modification of motor vehicles. It is one of the world's largest industries by ...
to the rapid transit sector and save a substantial volume of the country's
diesel Diesel may refer to: * Diesel engine, an internal combustion engine where ignition is caused by compression * Diesel fuel, a liquid fuel used in diesel engines * Diesel locomotive, a railway locomotive in which the prime mover is a diesel engine ...
and
petrol Gasoline (North American English) or petrol ( Commonwealth English) is a petrochemical product characterized as a transparent, yellowish, and flammable liquid normally used as a fuel for spark-ignited internal combustion engines. When formul ...
. Because metros were cheaper to operate and less energy consuming, the Soviet authorities managed to construct 20 rapid transits nationwide,Wilson 1983, p. 205. with a further nine in construction when the Soviet Union collapsed. Twenty other stations were under construction in 1985. The country's rapid transit system was the most intensively used in the world.


Dieselization

The
Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
was a pioneer in the development of the
diesel locomotive A diesel locomotive is a type of railway locomotive in which the prime mover (locomotive), power source is a diesel engine. Several types of diesel locomotives have been developed, differing mainly in the means by which mechanical power is con ...
to replace the
steam locomotive A steam locomotive is a locomotive that provides the force to move itself and other vehicles by means of the expansion of steam. It is fuelled by burning combustible material (usually coal, Fuel oil, oil or, rarely, Wood fuel, wood) to heat ...
(
dieselization Dieselisation (US: dieselization) is the process of equipping vehicles with a diesel engine or diesel engines. It can involve replacing an internal combustion engine powered by petrol (US: gasoline) fuel with an engine powered by diesel fuel, ...
) on non-electrified lines. But the USSR failed to make steady progress and while they led the
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
at first, they soon fell behind and their last steam locomotives were retired about 15 years later than for the US. The first mainline diesel locomotive in the world began running in 1924 in the USSR but it had an excessive number of breakdowns so other designs of diesel locomotives were developed and used in desert regions where water for steam locomotives was scarce. Then in 1937 the small scale production (only several units per year) of diesel locomotives (for desert use) came to a halt by order of Kaganovich, the head of the national railway committee (NKPS) and a leading figure in the Communist party. In the late 1930s, interest in diesels was rekindled by reports from the US that production of diesel locomotives was overtaking production of steam locomotives. The USSR was able to order 100 of them from the United States via
lend lease Lend-Lease, formally the Lend-Lease Act and introduced as An Act to Promote the Defense of the United States (),
during
World War II World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
. Half of them were
ALCO The American Locomotive Company (often shortened to ALCO, ALCo or Alco) was an American manufacturer that operated from 1901 to 1969, initially specializing in the production of locomotives but later diversifying and fabricating at various time ...
s and the other half Baldwins. All were 1000 hp which in the US were primarily used for switching and for short trains but were suitable for mainline operation in the Soviet Union. But they didn't begin arriving in the USSR until the start of 1945 when the war was almost over. After the end of the war, the production of
diesel locomotives A diesel locomotive is a type of railway locomotive in which the prime mover (locomotive), power source is a diesel engine. Several types of diesel locomotives have been developed, differing mainly in the means by which mechanical power is con ...
, which had been curtailed in 1937, was resumed with the first locomotives appearing in 1947. The US-made
ALCO The American Locomotive Company (often shortened to ALCO, ALCo or Alco) was an American manufacturer that operated from 1901 to 1969, initially specializing in the production of locomotives but later diversifying and fabricating at various time ...
was superior to the pre-war Soviet design so it was used as a prototype for a new TEx (x=1,2,3,5) series of Soviet locomotives. The dimensions were converted to metric and sometimes modified, the Soviet system of air brakes were used, and the engine speeds at certain controller positions were changed. The TE2 had double the power of the TE1 and was produced until in 1955 it was superseded by the TE3. The TE5 was just a variation of the TE1 and of minor significance.


Electrification

While the former Soviet Union got a late (and slow) start with rail electrification in the 1930s it eventually became the world leader in electrification in terms of the volume of traffic under the wires. During the last 30 years of the Soviet Union, it hauled as much rail freight as all the other countries in the world combined and in the end, over 60% of this was by electric locomotives. Electrification was cost effective due to the very high density of traffic and was at times projected to yield at least a 10% return on investment (as compared to diesel traction). By 1990, the electrification was about half 3 kV DC and half 25 kV AC 50 Hz and 70% of rail passenger-km was by electric railways.


Railway colleges

The Soviet Union had several railway colleges which trained engineers specializing in railway topics. Most of them still exist.


Post-Soviet rail traffic

After the
dissolution of the Soviet Union The Soviet Union was formally dissolved as a sovereign state and subject of international law on 26 December 1991 by Declaration No. 142-N of the Soviet of the Republics of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union. Declaration No. 142-Н of ...
in 1991, railway traffic in Russia sharply declined and new major electrification projects were not undertaken except for the line to Murmansk which was completed in 2005. Work continued on completing the electrification of the Trans-Siberian Railway, but at a slower pace, finishing in 2002. However, the percent of tonne-kilometers hauled today by electric trains has increased to about 85%.


Railway book publication

The
Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
published a large number of books on railways. For just the last half of 1956, 148 titles were published. Some of these books were very short, perhaps only fifteen pages. But many were a few hundred pages long and some were written as textbooks for use in railway classes in railway colleges.See the Soviet serial "Ежегодник книги СССР" (Yearbook of books published, USSR) published in Moscow by "Бсесоюзной книжной палаты = "National book publishers" . For example, the yearbook for 1956 (vol. 2 for the 2nd half of 1956) shows books 20937-20789 for railway transport. The numbering starts with 1 in vol.1, 1956, and ends in vol.2 with 27738, the number of titles of books on all subjects published in the calendar year of 1956 in the
SSR SSR may refer to: Businesses, entertainment and products * Solid State Records, a Christian record label * Chevrolet SSR, a Chevrolet small truck * Disney's Saratoga Springs Resort & Spa * Small Screen Rendering, a technology part of Opera Min ...


See also

*
History of rail transport in Russia Russia was and is the largest country in the world. Its geography of north–south rivers and east–west commerce, plus, importantly, the mostly flat terrain, made it very suited to develop railroads as the basic mode of transportation. Today R ...
*
Transport in the Soviet Union Transport in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was an important part of the nation's economy. The economic centralisation of the late 1920s and 1930s led to the development of infrastructure at a massive scale and rapid pace. Befor ...
*
The Museum of the Moscow Railway The Museum of the Moscow Railway () is situated next to Paveletsky Rail Terminal in Moscow. The museum reopened to private visitors in 2011 and it reopened to the general public in January 2012. It's the object of cultural heritage of Russia. ...
*
Russian Railway Museum The Russian Railway Museum is situated next to Baltiysky railway station in Saint Petersburg. The museum was established in 1978, its current site and exhibition opened to public on 1 November 2017. The museum utilizes the nineteenth century ...
, in
St. Petersburg Saint Petersburg, formerly known as Petrograd and later Leningrad, is the second-largest city in Russia after Moscow. It is situated on the River Neva, at the head of the Gulf of Finland on the Baltic Sea. The city had a population of 5,601, ...


Bibliography


In English

*Boublikoff, A.A. "A suggestion for railroad reform" in book: Buehler, E.C. (editor) "Government ownership of railroads", Annual debater's help book (vol. VI), New York, Noble and Noble, 1939; pp. 309–318. Original in journal "North American Review, vol. 237, pp. 346+. (Title is misleading. It's 90% about Russian/Soviet railways.) *Hunter, Holland. ''Soviet Transport Experience: Its Lessons For Other Countries'', Brookings Institution 1968. *Omrani, Bijan
''Asia Overland: Tales of Travel on the Trans-Siberian and Silk Road''
Odyssey Publications, 2010 *"Railroad Facts" (Yearbook) Association of American Railroads, Washington, DC (annual). *"Transportation in America", Statistical Analysis of Transportation in the United States (18th edition), with historical compendium 1939–1999, by Rosalyn A. Wilson, pub. by Eno Transportation Foundation Inc., Washington, DC, 2001. See table: Domestic Intercity Ton-Miles by Mode, pp. 12–13. *UN (United Nations) Statistical Yearbook. The earlier editions were designated by date (such as 1985/86) but later editions use the edition number (such as 51st). After 1985/86 the "World railway traffic" table was dropped. After the 51st ? edition, the long table: "Railways: traffic" was dropped resulting in no more UN railway statistics. *Urba CE, "The railroad situation : a perspective on the present, past and future of the U.S. railroad industry". Washington : Dept. of Transportation, Federal Railroad Administration, Office of Policy and Program Development Govt. Print. Off., 1978. *VanWinke, Jenette and Zycher, Benjamin; "Future Soviet Investment in Transportation, Energy, and Environmental Protection" A Rand Note. The Rand Corporation, Santa Monica, CA, 1992
Rand Soviet Transport
*Ward, Christopher J., ''Brezhnev's Folly: The Building of BAM and Late Soviet Socialism'', University of Pittsburgh Press, 2009. *Westwood J.N., 2002 ''Soviet Railways to Russian Railways'' Palgrave Macmillan. *


In Russian

*Аксененко,Н.Е., Бернгард, Ф.К., Богданов, Г.И "История железнодорожного транспорта России и Советского Союза, Т.2 : 1917–1945 гг" (History of railway transport in Russia and the Soviet Union, vol.2, 1917–1945) St. Petersburg, ПГУПС (a railway university) 1994–1997. - (The same ISBN is also used for vol.1: 1836–1917) 415 pp. *Громов, Н.Н.; Панченко, Т.А.; Чудновский, А.Д.; "Еденая транспорттная система (Unified Transportation System), Москва, Транспорт, 1987 (textbook). *Дробинский В.А., Егунов П.М. "Как устроен и работает тенловоз" (How the diesel locomotive works) 3rd ed. Moscow, Транспорт, 1980. *Ж/Д Транс.=Железнодорожный транцорт (Zheleznodorozhnyi transport =Railway transportation) (a magazine) *Иванова В.Н. (ed.) "Конструкция и динамика тепловозов" (Construction and dynamics of the diesel locomotive). Москва, Транспорт, 1968 (textbook). *Иноземцев В.Г., Казаринов Б.М., Ясенцев В.Ф. "Автоматические тормоза" (Automatic Brakes) Москва, Транспорт, 1981 (textbook). *Кузьмич В.Д., Левин Б.А, Фадеев Г.М.(editors) "История железнодорожного транспорта Советского Союза, Т.3 : 1945–1991 гг" (History of railway transport in the Soviet Union, vol.3, 1945–1991) ; Г. М. Афонина et al. - Moscow: Академкнига/ Moscow, 2004. - 631 pp. *Лехно,И.Б. (ed.) "Путевое хозяйство" (Railway track maintenance), Moscow Транспорт 1981 (textbook) *Макарочкин А.М., Дьяков Ю.В. "Использование и развитие пропускной способности железчух дорог" (Utilizing and development of traffic capacity of railway) Moskva, Транспорт 1981. *"Народное хозяйство СССР, в 19?? г. (Статистический ежегодник)" (Narodnoe khoziaistvo SSSR = National economy of the USSR)(a statistical yearbook). Москва (Moscow) "Финансы и Статистика" (Finance and statistics) section: Транспорт и связь" (Transport and communications)
online
*Плакс, А.В. & Пупынин, В.Н., "Электрические железные дороги" (Electric Railways), Москва, Транспорт, 1993. *Постановление Совмина СССР от 11 October 1990 N 1001: О Программе технического перевооружения и модернизации железных дорог СССР в 1991–2000 годах (Resolution of the Council of Ministers of the USSR of 11/10/1990 (#1001): Program of reequipping and modernization of USSR railroads in 1991–2000

*Резер, С.М., "Взаимодействие транспортных систем" (Coordination of the transportation system), Москва, Наука, 1985 (textbook). *Сергеева, В.И. ed. "Эстетика на железнодорожном транспорте" (Esthetics in railway transport) Moscow, Транспорт 1977. *Тихомирова, И.Г. "Интенсификация использования подвижного состава и перевозочной мощности железных дорог" (Intense utilization of rolling stock and the transport capacity of railroads), Москва, Транспорт, 1977. *"Транспорт и связь СССР (Статистический сборник)" (Transport and communications statistics). Москва: Финансы и статистика (Finance and statistics). Issued in 1957, 1972, 1990
online
*Фед=Федеральная служба государственной статистики (Federal government statistical service) "Транспорт в России" (Transportation in Russia) (annual

*Филиппов, М.М. (editor), "Железные Дороги, Общий Курс" (Railways, Basic Course) Москва, Транспорт, 3rd ed. 1981 (textbook). (Exists 4th ed. 1991 with new editor: Уздин, М.М.) *Шадур, Л.А. ed., Багоны: конструкция, теопия и расчёт (Railway cars: construction, theory and calculations), Москва, Транспорт, 1980 (textbook). *Шафиркин, Б.И, "Единая Транспортная Система СССР и взаимодействие различных видов транспорта" (Unified transportation system of the USSR and intermodal coordination), Москва, Высшая школа, 1983 (textbook). *Хомич, А.З., Тупицын О.И., Симсон А.Э "Экономия томлива и теплотехническая модернизачия темпловозов" (Fuel economy and thermodynamic modernization of the diesel locomotive) 1975. New edition title: "Томливая еффективость и вспмогательные режемы терловозных дизелей" (Fuel efficiency and non-nominal modes of operation of the diesel engine of locomotives) 1987. Publisher: Moscow, Транспорт.


Notes


External links

* {{Authority control
Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...