According to the

National Science Foundation The U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) is an Independent agencies of the United States government#Examples of independent agencies, independent agency of the Federal government of the United States, United States federal government that su ...

(NSF),

women A woman is an adult female human. Before adulthood, a female child or adolescent is referred to as a girl. Typically, women are of the female sex and inherit a pair of X chromosomes, one from each parent, and women with functional u ...

and racial minorities are underrepresented in

science, technology, engineering, and mathematics Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) is an umbrella term used to group together the distinct but related technical disciplines of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. The term is typically used in the context of ...

(STEM). Scholars, governments, and scientific organizations from around the world have noted a variety of explanations contributing to this lack of racial diversity, including higher levels of

discrimination Discrimination is the process of making unfair or prejudicial distinctions between people based on the groups, classes, or other categories to which they belong or are perceived to belong, such as race, gender, age, class, religion, or sex ...

implicit bias An implicit bias or implicit stereotype is the pre-reflective attribution of particular qualities by an individual to a member of some social out group. Implicit stereotypes are thought to be shaped by experience and based on learned association ...

microaggression Microaggression is a term used for commonplace verbal, behavioral or environmental slights, whether intentional or unintentional, that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative attitudes toward members of marginalized groups. The term was coine ...

s, chilly climate, lack of role models and mentors, and less academic preparation.

Race imbalance in STEM in the United States

Racial minorities, with the exception of

Asian Americans Asian Americans are Americans with Asian diaspora, ancestry from the continent of Asia (including naturalized Americans who are Immigration to the United States, immigrants from specific regions in Asia and descendants of those immigrants). A ...

, are underrepresented through every stage of the

STEM pipeline The STEM pipeline is the educational pathway for students in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). The start and end of this STEM pipeline are disputed, but it is often considered to begin in early education and ext ...

Education and degree attainment

Racial disparities in high school completion are a prominent reason for racial imbalances in STEM fields. While only 1.8% of Asian and 4.1% of White students drop out of high school, 5.6% of Black, 7.7% of

Hispanic The term Hispanic () are people, Spanish culture, cultures, or countries related to Spain, the Spanish language, or broadly. In some contexts, Hispanic and Latino Americans, especially within the United States, "Hispanic" is used as an Ethnici ...

, 8.0% of Pacific Islander, and 9.6% of American Indian/Alaskan Native students drop out of high school. Among those that graduate high school, 67% of Whites, 62% of Blacks, and 69% of Hispanics enroll in a “degree granting college.” While there is no measurable difference in college enrollment of White, Black, and Hispanic STEM students, only 15% of Black students who initially enrolled in a STEM major received a STEM bachelor's degree at graduation, compared to 30% of White and Asian students.

Employment, occupation, and income

According to the

National Science Board The National Science Board (NSB) of the United States establishes the policies of the National Science Foundation (NSF) within the framework of applicable national policies set forth by the President of the United States, president and the United ...

, which provides statistical data on the U.S. labor force, Asians represent 9%, Whites 65%, Hispanics 14%, and Blacks 9% of the STEM labor force. In particular, white men are 49% of the STEM labor force. Among different STEM fields, Blacks make up only 4% of

life science Life, also known as biota, refers to matter that has biological processes, such as signaling and self-sustaining processes. It is defined descriptively by the capacity for homeostasis, organisation, metabolism, growth, adaptation, respon ...

, 5% of

engineering Engineering is the practice of using natural science, mathematics, and the engineering design process to Problem solving#Engineering, solve problems within technology, increase efficiency and productivity, and improve Systems engineering, s ...

, 6% of

physical sciences Physical science is a branch of natural science that studies non-living systems, in contrast to life science. It in turn has many branches, each referred to as a "physical science", together is called the "physical sciences". Definition ...

, 7% of the

computer science Computer science is the study of computation, information, and automation. Computer science spans Theoretical computer science, theoretical disciplines (such as algorithms, theory of computation, and information theory) to Applied science, ...

, 9% of math and 11% of health-related sciences. There are also significant wage gaps between women, men, and

people of color The term "person of color" (: people of color or persons of color; abbreviated POC) is used to describe any person who is not considered "white". In its current meaning, the term originated in, and is associated with, the United States. From th ...

, especially in STEM jobs. An example of this disadvantage is the

gender pay gap The gender pay gap or gender wage gap is the average difference between the remuneration for men and women who are Employment, employed. Women are generally found to be paid less than men. There are two distinct measurements of the pay gap: non ...

and racial pay gap in computer science fields, where women earn about 74% of what men earn and the

median income The median income is the income amount that divides a population into two groups, half having an income above that amount, and half having an income below that amount. It may differ from the mean (or average) income. Both of these are ways of unde ...

for White workers is approximately 23.3% more than the median income for Blacks. The gender and racial pay gaps in STEM fields are significantly greater than all regular non-STEM jobs with an even greater pay gap between these gender, racial, and ethnic groups. When first being hired, 35% of women of color reported negotiating their salaries, but nearly 50% wished that they had negotiated their salary after starting the job. Many of these women reported being initially satisfied with the salary they had been offered when being hired, but later learned that they were earning much less than other workers at their same level.

Effects of underrepresentation of people of color in STEM

Among Black workers in STEM fields, 57% feel that there too little attention being directed toward adding more racial and ethnic diversity in the workplace. This lack of diversity contributes to isolation and a lack of social support in the workplace which can increase anxiety and depression for many people of color in STEM.

Explanations for the underrepresentation for people of color

Recently, scholars have begun applying the framework of

systemic racism Institutional racism, also known as systemic racism, is a form of institutional discrimination based on race or ethnic group and can include policies and practices that exist throughout a whole society or organization that result in and suppor ...

to explain the experiences of racial minorities in STEM. Specifically, research indicates that people of color, especially blacks, experience higher levels of

, incur various

s, and a lack of overall mentorship and support in STEM.

Stereotypes and preconceived notions of STEM

Scientific racism Scientific racism, sometimes termed biological racism, is the pseudoscience, pseudoscientific belief that the Human, human species is divided into biologically distinct taxa called "race (human categorization), races", and that empirical evi ...

of the late 19th and early 20th centuries attempted to identify biological, intellectual, and physiological differences among races. Lasting effects of the scientific racism include racial

stereotype In social psychology, a stereotype is a generalization, generalized belief about a particular category of people. It is an expectation that people might have about every person of a particular group. The type of expectation can vary; it can ...

s about students of color and preconceived notions of STEM as predominantly a white, male field. A study highlighting the underrepresentation of women and racial minorities in STEM found that Asian and White candidates were viewed as more competent and hirable than Black and Latino/a candidates. Similarly, survey results from this study show that students were much more likely to recognize and name white male STEM professionals than Black or women STEM professionals. Additionally, students of color on college campus often face prevailing societal misconceptions and assumptions that they are affirmative action beneficiaries, on sport scholarships, and/or “at-risk” students. Students of color additionally must contend with

stereotype threat Stereotype threat is a situational predicament in which people are or feel themselves to be at risk of conforming to stereotypes about their social group. It is theorized to be a contributing factor to long-standing Achievement gaps in the Unite ...

that has been found to lower academic achievement. In particular, high-achieving Black students, attempting to combat prevailing stereotypes about their lack of intelligence, while Asian students combat the prevailing

model minority The term model minority refers to a minority group, defined by factors such as ethnicity, race, or religion, whose members are perceived to be achieving a higher socioeconomic status in comparison to the overall population average. Consequently, ...

stereotype presuming they are biologically predisposed to mathematical ability.

Stem identity

The development of a STEM identity increases the overall likelihood that a student will continue to develop scientific literacy and pursue a STEM career. The National Research Council's 2009 report describes students developing STEM identities as learning to “think about themselves as science learners and develop ngan identity as someone who knows about, uses and sometime contributes to science.” Black girls are less likely to develop STEM identities in middle school because they have fewer science-related experiences outside of school and less confidence in their scientific ability than Asian-American, Latina, and White middle school girls, making them less likely to enter STEM fields in the future. Additionally, research demonstrates that beyond first-hand experience with science, societal norms, stereotypes, and interactions with peers, teachers, and family contribute to the development of a STEM identity.

Microaggressions

People of color and underrepresented minority groups in science, technology, engineering and math are more likely than whites to experience racial

s. Studies show racial microaggressions that occur on college campus weaken students sense of belonging, make it difficult to form relationships with faculty, and contribute to less cultural alignment with STEM. At predominantly white institutions (PWI) environmental microaggressions are common in shared laboratory spaces among students and during meetings with faculty and advisors. Black female students are especially likely to feel alienated and isolated from their peers in STEM departments.

Implicit bias

Research on

demonstrates that as early as preschool teachers are likely to hold implicit bias against students of color, especially Black boys. While Black children make up 19% of preschool enrollment, they account for about half of preschool suspension. Implicit biases among teachers, faculty, and colleagues makes it more difficult for students of color to form relationships, network with professionals in their fields, and find valuable mentors. Judgements placed upon people of color based on implicit biases are incredibly damaging and contribute to

, which affects their overall performances. For instance, Black women are often assumed to be underqualified forcing them to prove that they deserve to be in those spaces as was the case of

Katherine Johnson Creola Katherine Johnson (; August 26, 1918February 24, 2020) was an American mathematician whose calculations of orbital mechanics as a NASA employee were critical to the success of the first and subsequent U.S. crewed spaceflights.* During h ...

depicted in ''Disney's'' "

Hidden Figures ''Hidden Figures'' is a 2016 American Biographical film, biographical Drama (film and television), drama film directed by Theodore Melfi and written by Melfi and Allison Schroeder. It is loosely based on the 2016 non-fiction Hidden Figures (boo ...

Sense of belonging

When people do not feel welcome in a place, environment, or institution, they are less likely to feel they belong and more likely to withdraw.Strayhorn, Terrell L. "Factors Influencing Black Males' Preparation for College and Success in STEM Majors: A Mixed Methods Study." ''Western Journal of Black Studies'' 39.1 (2015). In particular, women and people of color often adopt individual strategies of assimilation or patriarchal bargaining in their attempt to gain acceptance. For example, Black male scientists adopt coping strategies to endure racialized interactions with colleagues and managers.Burt, Brian A., Krystal L. Williams, and William A. Smith. "Into the storm: Ecological and sociological impediments to Black males’ persistence in engineering graduate programs." ''American Educational Research Journal'' 55.5 (2018): 965-1006. Similarly, Black female undergraduates students describe coping with racism on campus by gravitating toward same-race peers, faculty, and staff. When underrepresented groups are forced to adapt or leave the field altogether, it costs STEM valuable talent and perspectives that could be used to advance scientific discoveries and advancements. Mae Jemison - Flickr - NASA on The Commons

Mae Jemison - Flickr - NASA on The Commons

STEM pipeline

The

starts to narrow early as students of color face additional barriers to STEM participation in school. The following are some examples of these barriers.

Primary and secondary schools

Research indicates that racial disparities in science achievement test scores begin as early as third grade. These test score disparities were attributed to both socioeconomic status gaps between races and school qualities. In particular, Black and Hispanic students are more than double as likely to live in low-income neighborhoods compared to White students which directly contributes to less money for local public schools and indirectly less funding for STEM programs. Black and Latino/a may not always have the same access to higher level high school courses that are building blocks for success in College STEM fields. For example, those who have not taken high school trigonometry, calculus, or physics, are put at a disadvantage in terms of graduating with a STEM degree. Beyond academic preparation, experiences with STEM across various settings, including school, home, and out-of-school, help students of color see STEM careers as more possible.

College

While Black males are twice as likely as their white peers to declare a STEM major upon entering college, they are less likely to graduate with a STEM degree. Scholars point to microaggressions, a chilly climate, and lack of role models and mentors as contributing to students of color being "weeded out” of STEM majors. Additionally, one study examining Black male engineering graduate students found that microaggressions from counselors, mentors, and fellow students resulted non-normative role strain. These actors increase the likelihood that people of color leave STEM majors.

Mentorship

Because white men are still overrepresented in STEM fields there is a lack of available mentorship from faculty and scientists of color. As a result, students of color in STEM feel unheard, excluded, and lose opportunities to make connections with peers. Research does indicate that students of color at HBCU's are much more likely to perceive their mentors to be supportive and describe more positive interactions with peers.

Work

Underrepresented minorities, including women,

, and

LGBT LGBTQ people are individuals who are lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, or questioning. Many variants of the initialism are used; LGBTQIA+ people incorporates intersex, asexual, aromantic, agender, and other individuals. The gro ...

individuals are more vulnerable to experience discrimination, isolation, and/or harassment in their workplaces. A Pew survey of men and women in STEM indicates that 50% of women in STEM experienced gender-related discrimination at work and about 62% of Black people in STEM jobs stated they experienced racial discrimination at work. Additionally, 72% of Black STEM workers believe that facing racial discrimination is a major reason why there are not more people of color in STEM fields.

Strategies for increasing participation of people of color in STEM

Underrepresentation of people of color in STEM is a problem that is rooted to

white supremacy White supremacy is the belief that white people are superior to those of other races. The belief favors the maintenance and defense of any power and privilege held by white people. White supremacy has roots in the now-discredited doctrine ...

and

racism Racism is the belief that groups of humans possess different behavioral traits corresponding to inherited attributes and can be divided based on the superiority of one Race (human categorization), race or ethnicity over another. It may also me ...

Bias training

Many scholars and organization recommend elimination of bias as a means to increase representation in STEM. Specifically,

, training of students, managers, faculty, and even students is seen as one way to combat stereotypes and reduce microaggressions targeting people of color. Additionally, incorporating implicit bias statements and policies can strengthen a commitment to diversity and inclusion within institutions.

Protective factors

Those in STEM fields have recognized that there is an extensive history of poor representation of women and people of color in STEM and are working to close the gap. Addressing this issue requires a coherent and sustained effort across multiple fronts. Many would argue that single intervention does not work, but that sustainable and strategic reform in education, work place, and within our communities would put our theory in to practice. Transforming our perception of STEM in the early education years for students of color necessitates celebration of the distinct contribution that women and people of color bring to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.

Teachers

While many teachers are highly dedicated to reducing the race gap and actively striving to create equal opportunities in their classrooms, they can actually contribute to the STEM race gap. It is important that teachers understand that their actions impact students’ futures more than they may realize.Dodge, Amanda. "What You Need to Know About the STEM Race Gap." ''2018''. https://ozobot.com/blog/need-know-stem-race-gap

Role models

One of the most promoted solutions is the need for role models. While both female and male role models can be effective in recruiting women in STEM fields there is a lack of role models of color to mentor POC in STEM fields. When individuals have someone to look up to that looks like them, they are more willing to stay in the field and develop a sense of belonging. Opportunities to engage and connect with individuals in STEM allows for excitement to be a part of this community and the development of a stronger STEM identity.

Mentors

Mentors provide students the academic and social support they need to succeed in STEM, however, having same-race mentorship is an important step in retaining students of color in STEM. Not only do students of color report more positive interactions with same-race faculty, they are also more likely to develop stronger STEM identities.

Organized efforts

There is a growing number of organizations whose goal is to increase diversity in STEM fields by encouraging girls and women to thrive in STEM environments. An example of one of these organizations is

Girls Who Code Girls Who Code (also known as GWC) is an international nonprofit organization that aims to support and increase the number of women in computer science. Among its programs are a summer immersion program, a specialized campus program, after-school ...

. Their mission is to successfully close the gender gap in new entry-level tech jobs by 2030. Girls Who Code focuses their work not only on gender diversity but also on young women who are historically underrepresented in computer science fields, including African American/Black, Hispanic or Latina, Bi/ Multiracial, Native American/Alaskan, and Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander, those who come from low-income backgrounds, specifically free and/or reduced lunch eligible, and those who have had a lack of exposure or access to computer science
Girls Who Code
acknowledges and values the intersections of race/ethnicity, gender identity and expression, class, sexual orientation, ability, age, national origin, and religious/spiritual identities. Similarly, Black girls who participated i
I AM STEM
a community nonprofit organization designed to increase STEM participation among underrepresented groups, engaged directly in first-hand scientific research which contributed to stronger connections to STEM.{{Cite journal, last1=King, first1=Natalie S., last2=Pringle, first2=Rose M., date=2019, title=Black girls speak STEM: Counterstories of informal and formal learning experiences, url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/tea.21513, journal=Journal of Research in Science Teaching, language=en, volume=56, issue=5, pages=539–569, doi=10.1002/tea.21513, bibcode=2019JRScT..56..539K, s2cid=150156907, issn=1098-2736, url-access=subscription Another great example of organizations for the underrepresented is th
Society for advancement of Chicanos/Hispanics and Native Americans in Science
(SACNAS). SACNAS's mission is to advance the success of Chicanos/Hispanics and Native Americans in securing advanced degrees, careers, and positions of leadership in STEM fields. The organization has been working to make sure that those most underrepresented in STEM have the support they need to attain advanced degrees, careers, and positions of leadership. SACNAS also often points out that diverse voices bring creative solutions to our world's most pressing scientific problems and that building a national network that is innovative, powerful, and inclusive is necessary.

Important scientists, engineers, and mathematicians

West Area Computers The West Area Computers (short for West Area Computing Unit) were the African American, female mathematicians who worked as human computers at the Langley Research Center of NACA (predecessor of NASA) from 1943 through 1958. These women were a sub ...

Dorothy Vaughan Dorothy Jean Johnson Vaughan (September 20, 1910 – November 10, 2008) was an American mathematician and human computer who worked for the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), and NASA, at Langley Research Center in Hampton, ...

* Mary Jackson * Raychelle Burks * Jedidiah Isler *

Ellen Ochoa Ellen Ochoa (born May 10, 1958) is an American engineer, former astronaut and former director of the Johnson Space Center. In 1993, Ochoa became the first Latina woman to go to space when she served on a nine-day mission aboard the Space Shutt ...

* Ruby Hirose * Rebecca Lee Crumpler * France A. Cordova * Claudia Alexander * Susan La Flesche Picotte * Alice Ball *

Janaki Ammal Edavalath Kakkat Janaki Ammal (formally known as Janaki Ammal) (4 November 1897 – 7 February 1984) was an Indian botanist who worked on plant breeding, cytogenetics and phytogeography. Her most notable work involved studies on sugarcane and ...

* Linda Garcia Cubero *

Hedy Lamarr Hedy Lamarr (; born Hedwig Eva Maria Kiesler; November 9, 1914 January 19, 2000) was an Austrian-born American actress and inventor. After a brief early film career in Czechoslovakia, including the controversial erotic romantic drama '' Ecstasy ...

* Nadine Caron *

Neil deGrasse Tyson Neil deGrasse Tyson ( or ; born October 5, 1958) is an American astrophysics, astrophysicist, author, and science communication, science communicator. Tyson studied at Harvard University, the University of Texas at Austin, and Columbia Univ ...

* John Herrington * Mary G. Ross *

Luis Walter Alvarez Luis Walter Alvarez (June 13, 1911 – September 1, 1988) was an American experimental physicist, inventor, and professor who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1968 for his discovery of resonance (particle physics), resonance states in ...

Ella Cara Deloria Ella Cara Deloria (January 31, 1889 – February 12, 1971), also called Aŋpétu Wašté Wiŋ ("Beautiful Day Woman"), was a Yankton Dakota educator, anthropologist, ethnographer, linguist, and novelist. She recorded Native American oral history ...

Witri Wahyu Lestari
* Aaron Yazzie * Nanibaa' Garrison

References

Engineering education Science education Women in science and technology