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Feminist sociology is an
interdisciplinary Interdisciplinarity or interdisciplinary studies involves the combination of multiple academic disciplines into one activity (e.g., a research project). It draws knowledge from several fields such as sociology, anthropology, psychology, economi ...
exploration of
gender Gender is the range of social, psychological, cultural, and behavioral aspects of being a man (or boy), woman (or girl), or third gender. Although gender often corresponds to sex, a transgender person may identify with a gender other tha ...
and
power Power may refer to: Common meanings * Power (physics), meaning "rate of doing work" ** Engine power, the power put out by an engine ** Electric power, a type of energy * Power (social and political), the ability to influence people or events Math ...
throughout society. Here, it uses
conflict theory Conflict may refer to: Social sciences * Conflict (process), the general pattern of groups dealing with disparate ideas * Conflict continuum from cooperation (low intensity), to contest, to higher intensity (violence and war) * Conflict of ...
and theoretical perspectives to observe
gender Gender is the range of social, psychological, cultural, and behavioral aspects of being a man (or boy), woman (or girl), or third gender. Although gender often corresponds to sex, a transgender person may identify with a gender other tha ...
in its relation to
power Power may refer to: Common meanings * Power (physics), meaning "rate of doing work" ** Engine power, the power put out by an engine ** Electric power, a type of energy * Power (social and political), the ability to influence people or events Math ...
, both at the level of
face-to-face interaction Human communication, or anthroposemiotics, is a field of study dedicated to understanding how humans communicate. Humans' ability to communicate with one another would not be possible without an understanding of what we are referencing or think ...
and reflexivity within
social structure In the social sciences, social structure is the aggregate of patterned social arrangements in society that are both emergent from and determinant of the actions of individuals. Likewise, society is believed to be grouped into structurally rel ...
s at large. Focuses include
sexual orientation Sexual orientation is an enduring personal pattern of romantic attraction or sexual attraction (or a combination of these) to persons of the opposite sex or gender, the same sex or gender, or to both sexes or more than one gender. Patterns ar ...
, race, economic status, and
nationality Nationality is the legal status of belonging to a particular nation, defined as a group of people organized in one country, under one legal jurisdiction, or as a group of people who are united on the basis of culture. In international law, n ...
.


History

Charlotte Perkins Gilman Charlotte Anna Perkins Gilman (; née Perkins; July 3, 1860 – August 17, 1935), also known by her first married name Charlotte Perkins Stetson, was an American humanist, novelist, writer, lecturer, early sociologist, advocate for social reform ...
's (1860–1935) work helped formalize feminist theory during the 1960s. Growing up, she went against traditional holds that were placed on her by society by focusing on reading and learning concepts different from women who were taught to be
housewives A housewife (also known as a homemaker or a stay-at-home mother/mom/mum) is a woman whose role is running or managing her family's home—housekeeping, which may include Parenting, caring for her children; cleaning and maintaining the home; Sew ...
. Her main focus was on
gender inequality Gender inequality is the social phenomenon in which people are not treated equally on the basis of gender. This inequality can be caused by gender discrimination or sexism. The treatment may arise from distinctions regarding biology, psychology ...
between men and women along with gender roles placed on by society. Where men go to work secure proper income for the family while women stay at home and tend to the family along with household chores. She "emphasized how differential socialization leads to gender inequality", but she did agree that biologically there is a difference between those born with female and male parts. Parts of her research involved a theoretical orientation of a multidimensional approach to gender and discusses it more in depth in her book ''Women and Economics''. Due to gender roles she believed that women pretended to live a certain life to avoid achieving their full potential living the role of a housewife. This is an example of a neurological theory, as developed by
Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud ( ; ; born Sigismund Schlomo Freud; 6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939) was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for evaluating and treating psychopathology, pathologies seen as originating fro ...
, which is cultivated using a
psychoanalysis PsychoanalysisFrom Greek language, Greek: and is a set of theories and techniques of research to discover unconscious mind, unconscious processes and their influence on conscious mind, conscious thought, emotion and behaviour. Based on The Inte ...
process called conscious and subconscious state of mind. The specific example given would be considered falling under
false consciousness In Marxist theory, false consciousness is a term describing the ways in which material, ideological, and institutional processes are said to mislead members of the proletariat and other class actors within capitalist societies, concealing the ...
instead of the consciousness that helps control our daily lives. Leading the belief that women are viewed as property of their husbands, economically women were still dependent on husbands to provide financial support to themselves and their family. Gilman argued furthermore that the traditional division of labor was not biologically driven, but instead forced upon women based on the structure of society since before the nineteenth century. Society played a big role for women and their actions in their daily lives. Gilman described this as a ''sociobiological'' tragedy because women are disregarded as being part of the ideology of "survival of the fittest". Instead, females are thought to be soft and weak individuals who are only good for productive purposes, and who are depicted as emotional and frail beings born to serve their husbands, children, and family without living for themselves. Gilman conducted her research at a time when women engaged in science were unheard of and when women were barred from voting. Her research helped create a ripple effect, along with that of other female sociologists, that helped pave the way for feminism and concepts related to feminist theory. The study of sociology had been mostly androcentric up until the 1970s, when sociological thinking began to shift to focus on women. In 1963s, the Equal Pay Act, signed into law by
John F. Kennedy John Fitzgerald Kennedy (May 29, 1917 – November 22, 1963), also known as JFK, was the 35th president of the United States, serving from 1961 until his assassination in 1963. He was the first Roman Catholic and youngest person elected p ...
, outlawed the wage disparity based on sex (Grady). The Equal Pay Act was one of the first ways that the United States began to shift its mentality about women's rights, how women should be treated in the workplace, and in society at large. While the Equal Pay Act focused solely on equal pay for equal work regardless of sex, Title VII of the
1964 Civil Rights Act The Civil Rights Act of 1964 () is a landmark civil rights and labor law in the United States that outlaws discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, and national origin. It prohibits unequal application of voter registration requi ...
was passed in a fight against discrimination of any kind in the workplace. A major form of discrimination many women face in the workplace is
sexual harassment Sexual harassment is a type of harassment based on the sex or gender of a victim. It can involve offensive sexist or sexual behavior, verbal or physical actions, up to bribery, coercion, and assault. Harassment may be explicit or implicit, wit ...
. Sexual harassment is a form of illegal discrimination based on an abuse of power which can range from "inappropriate jokes" to "outright sexual assault" and more (Conley 312). While sexual harassment is not a form of discrimination uniquely faced by women, when it occurs in the workplace it often involves the subordination of women by a male superior or coworker. In the 1970s, many women fought for the right to dictate what happens to their body, such as establishing legal
abortion Abortion is the early termination of a pregnancy by removal or expulsion of an embryo or fetus. Abortions that occur without intervention are known as miscarriages or "spontaneous abortions", and occur in roughly 30–40% of all pregnan ...
s, as well as making
forced sterilization Compulsory sterilization, also known as forced or coerced sterilization, refers to any government-mandated program to involuntarily sterilize a specific group of people. Sterilization removes a person's capacity to reproduce, and is usually do ...
illegal (Grady). This shifted how Americans saw women, and the country began changing to allow women to have more control over their bodies.   Starting in the early 1990s, several instances of sexual harassment and abuse became well known and started a push for women to open about their own encounters with harassment. The allegations by Anita Young that Justice
Clarence Thomas Clarence Thomas (born June 23, 1948) is an American lawyer and jurist who has served since 1991 as an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. President George H. W. Bush nominated him to succeed Thurgood Marshall. Afte ...
had sexually harassed her was one of these instances. After Thomas was confirmed as a justice on the Supreme Court regardless of these allegations, more women began to speak out. In surveys taken after the hearings, it was reported that "between 40 and 65 percent of women claim to have experienced sexual harassment on the job" (Sapiro). This social shift led to a change in attitude over bodily autonomy, and boundaries within the workplace, and throughout life. Beginning in the mid-1990s, women began to come forward with sexual harassment complaints and sexual assault allegations against their male counterparts, which led to a movement of drastically increased numbers of women taking a stance against sexual violence, leading to society recognizing there is a fundamental problem concerning sexual harassment (Grady). This, in turn, led to another movement in recent years called the "
Me Too Movement #MeToo is a social movement and Consciousness raising, awareness campaign against sexual abuse, sexual harassment and rape culture, in which women publicize their experiences of sexual abuse or sexual harassment. The phrase "Me Too" was init ...
" that led many women to coming forward with their own stories and encounters, showing that sexual harassment affects women across the world.


Feminism and race

Many feminist sociologists argue that the intersectionality of women, especially when it comes to race, can no longer be ignored by the growing feminist movement. Due to the increase in popularity of this outlook, there has been a rise of transnational feminists stressing the idea that feminism should not be seen as an exclusively Western-centric idea, but that it must be able to adapt in order to incorporate the context and complications of individual cultures and traditions. The relationship between feminism and race was largely overlooked until the second wave of feminists produced greater literature on the topic of '
black feminism Black feminism is a branch of feminism that focuses on the African-American woman's experiences and recognizes the intersectionality of racism and sexism.  Black feminism philosophy centers on the idea that "Black women are inherently va ...
'. The second wave of feminists incorporated a "new feminist theory" known as including race, gender, and class to explain the oppression women of color face. This intersectionalist approach on feminist sociology allows for a type of "marriage" between the "gender/race/class dynamic", rather than excluding individuals of different races, ethnicities, nationalities, social classes, gender, sexual orientation, or any other factors. Women who suffer from oppression due to race may find themselves in a
double bind A double bind is a dilemma in communication in which an individual (or group) receives two or more mutually conflicting messages. In some scenarios (such as within families or romantic relationships), this can be emotionally distressing, creati ...
. The relationship between feminism and race was largely overlooked until the second wave of feminists produced greater literature on the topic of 'black feminism'. Historically, the feminist movement, and the sociological feminist movement, has been led by middle and upper-class women from predominantly white backgrounds, causing the social trends of the movement to largely pass over the issues faced by women who do not fit into these tropes. This disregarding of the issues of intersectional women throughout the history of the feminist movement is due largely to the ignorance of the issues that these women face, and the assumption that the problems of white women within middle and upper-class homes are the problems of all women. An ongoing debate in portions of transnational feminism surrounds the question of "solidarity", specifically as regards the general representation of women of the
Global South Global North and Global South are terms that denote a method of grouping countries based on their defining characteristics with regard to socioeconomics and politics. According to UN Trade and Development (UNCTAD), the Global South broadly com ...
. The question has been posed by a movement opposing the single minded outlook of second wave feminism, called
Third World The term Third World arose during the Cold War to define countries that remained non-aligned with either NATO or the Warsaw Pact. The United States, Canada, Taiwan, Japan, South Korea, the Southern Cone, NATO, Western European countries and oth ...
feminism. Because feminist movements are primarily led and operated by Western women who have sought to define themselves "in relation to 'other' more oppressed women from non-Western countries." Consequently, this has rendered women from the Global South "mere objects of their systems and institutions, victims of this never changing primitive force known as culture", effectively erasing their struggles only to be "replaced instead by the voices of Western feminists who want to save them." However, several African American women within the field of feminist theory have been crucial in revolutionizing the field in which they work. An instrumental contribution to the field was Kimberlé Crenshaw's seminal 1989 paper, "Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics" (Crenshaw 1989). In it, she outlines the manner in which black women have been erased from feminist pedagogy. Black women must be understood as having multiple identities that intersect and reinforce one another, the two key experiences of being black and of being women. Furthermore, black women suffer on both racist and sexist fronts, marginalized not only by larger systems of oppression but by existing feminist discourse that disregards their
intersectionality Intersectionality is an analytical framework for understanding how groups' and individuals' social and political identities result in unique combinations of discrimination and privilege. Examples of these intersecting and overlapping factor ...
. Crenshaw's work is integral to understanding feminist sociology, as it advocated for black feminist thought and set the building blocks for future feminist sociologists such as
Patricia Hill Collins Patricia Hill Collins (born May 1, 1948) is an American academic specializing in race, class, and gender. She is a distinguished university professor of sociology emerita at the University of Maryland, College Park. She is also the former head of ...
.
Anna Julia Cooper Anna Julia Cooper ( Haywood; August 10, 1858February 27, 1964) was an American author, educator, sociologist, speaker, Civil rights movement#Background, Black liberation activist, Black feminist leader, and one of the most prominent African Ame ...
and Ida Bell Wells-Barnett are African American women who were instrumental in conducting much research and making valuable contributions in the field of black feminism. Cooper and Wells-Barnett both consciously drew on their lived experiences as African American women to develop a "systematic consciousness of society and social relations". As such, these women foreshadow the development of a feminist sociological theory based in the interests of women of colour.


Feminism and stratification

There are different models that attempt to describe the relationship between gender and stratification. One model is the sex-differences model which discusses the differences in behavior and attitude when called on the labels of male and female. Further, it is attempting to locate the true difference when all "socialization is removed". The inequalities that exist are due to many of the processes that are essential in normal socialization. However, these processes are removed. Another model is the sex-roles model which employs socialization, rather than ignoring it, to attempt to uncover the differences in gender and how people choose to identify to discover gender roles. Some sociologists do not agree with this sex-roles approach because it does not fall under the normal sociological "understanding of social roles". This is because most express a connection between oneself and other people. However, the sex-roles approach discusses two "polarized and internally persistent sets of predispositions". Most "theorists of gender do not agree on any one comprehensive theory of stratification". Also, "feminist analyses have developed gender parallels to the critiques of models of race that fail to address inequality as a function of something other than "difference". There are many different sociologists who argue that gender is organized "differently for Whites and Blacks" within race. These theorists continue to argue that gender also significantly impacts race differently for men and women. Similarly, gender also impacts the organization of class and class impacts the organization of gender.


Feminism and gender

Historically, feminism has been a traditionally feminine role in America, and being a feminist has had a negative connotation toward it, at least in 1848 when the
First-wave feminism First-wave feminism was a period of feminist activity and thought that occurred during the 19th and early 20th century throughout the Western world. It focused on De jure, legal issues, primarily on securing women's right to vote. The term is oft ...
started. Women who are feminists have been called "ugly" "men haters" or "always angry". These stereotypes only are associated with women, because it is not common in the U.S. for men to be feminists as well. The feminist movement started as a way to grant gender equality to women, but it is not limited to only women. Men can also be feminists if they believe that women deserve equal rights as well. Gender is a
social construct A social construct is any category or thing that is made real by convention or collective agreement. Socially constructed realities are contrasted with natural kinds, which exist independently of human behavior or beliefs. Simple examples of s ...
derived from norms that society has implemented; based on how they believe a male or female would represent themselves. The third wave of feminism started the notion of connecting racial, sexual, and gender identities.
Gender Gender is the range of social, psychological, cultural, and behavioral aspects of being a man (or boy), woman (or girl), or third gender. Although gender often corresponds to sex, a transgender person may identify with a gender other tha ...
can be different for most people, and it does not have to fall in line with an individual's biological sex as well. It is up to interpretation, feminism and the way an individual chooses to be a feminist can be up for interpretation as well. Women having feminine manners was brought to light as gender tried to explain why men and women are treated unequally positions of power; and leads to
misogynistic Misogyny () is hatred of, contempt for, or prejudice against women or girls. It is a form of sexism that can keep women at a lower social status than men, thus maintaining the social roles of patriarchy. Misogyny has been widely practis ...
views of calling women "weak" because "femininity is a female flaw". The words used to describe women that are used as an insult are a compliment to men. For example, if a woman is assertive, aggressive, or bold, she is labeled as bossy. Feminists have continuously tried shifting away from the narrative that men cannot be feminists, and that being feminine is for women. Research has shown that men have participated in creating change and respecting feminist movements.


Feminism and queer theory

Modern queer theory attempts to unmake the social and contextual elements reinforcing
heteronormativity Heteronormativity is the definition of heterosexuality as the normative human sexuality. It assumes the gender binary (i.e., that there are only two distinct, opposite genders) and that sexual and marital relations are most fitting between peo ...
by challenging oppressive institutions on traditional binary distinctions between male and female, among its many other criticisms. In this regard, feminism and queer theory address the same ways social structures violently categorize and erase women and LGBTQIA+ people from the social narrative. However, sociological feminism often reinforces the gender binary through the research process "as the gendered subject is made the object of the study" (McCann 2016, 229). Queer theory, by comparison, challenges the traditional ideas of gender through the deconstruction and lack of acceptance of a dichotomy of male and female traits. In her recent work "Epistemology of the Subject: Queer Theory's Challenge to Feminist Sociology", McCann confronts the theoretical perspective and methodology of feminist sociology:" he subjectrarely reflects the fluid, unstable, and dynamic realities of bodies and experiences. To "settle" on a subject category, then, is to reinscribe a fixity that excludes some, often in violent ways (for example, those who are literally erased because their bodies do not conform to a discrete binary)" (McCann 2016, 231-232). There can be a refashioning of the field, where extending boundaries to include queer theory would "develop new and innovative theoretical approaches to research... ndaddress inequality within society" (McCann 2016, 237).


Feminist critiques of multiculturalism

Debates within
ethnic relations The sociology of race and ethnic relations is the study of social, political, and economic relations between races and ethnicities at all levels of society. This area encompasses the study of systemic racism, like residential segregation and ...
, particularly regarding the opposing perspectives of assimilationism and
multiculturalism Multiculturalism is the coexistence of multiple cultures. The word is used in sociology, in political philosophy, and colloquially. In sociology and everyday usage, it is usually a synonym for ''Pluralism (political theory), ethnic'' or cultura ...
, have led to the accusation that feminism is incompatible with multiculturalist policy. Feminists have many critics who are in favor of the idea of multiculturalism. These critics believe that feminists should not push their views on other cultures because it forces western ideas on others. Feminists around the world argue that men are mistreating women in other countries, but the male elites around that world would justify their infringement on women's rights by passing it off as part of their culture (Moller Okin). People with feminist ideals do not care about the backlash they get from world leaders and other countries. They believe that violations of women's rights should be prohibited all around the world, and their mission is to rid all cultural excuses for women's oppression (Moller Okin). The remit of multiculturalism is to allow distinct cultures to reside in Western societies, or separate societies in general, and one possible consequence is that certain religious or traditional practices may negate Western feminist ideals. Central debates include the topics of
arranged marriage Arranged marriage is a type of Marriage, marital union where the bride and groom are primarily selected by individuals other than the couple themselves, particularly by family members such as the parents. In some cultures, a professional matchmaki ...
and
female genital mutilation Female genital mutilation (FGM) (also known as female genital cutting, female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) and female circumcision) is the cutting or removal of some or all of the vulva for non-medical reasons. Prevalence of female ge ...
. Others have argued that these debates stem from Western
orientalism In art history, literature, and cultural studies, Orientalism is the imitation or depiction of aspects of the Eastern world (or "Orient") by writers, designers, and artists from the Western world. Orientalist painting, particularly of the Middle ...
and general political reluctance to accept foreign migrants.


Types of feminism

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Anarcha-feminism Anarcha-feminism, also known as anarchist feminism or anarcho-feminism, is a system of analysis which combines the principles and power analysis of anarchist theory with feminism. It closely resembles intersectional feminism. Anarcha-feminism ge ...
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Liberal feminism Liberal feminism, also called mainstream feminism, is a main branch of feminism defined by its focus on achieving gender equality through political and legal reform within the framework of liberal democracy and informed by a human rights per ...
*
Cultural feminism Cultural feminism is a term used to describe a variety of feminism that attempts to revalue and redefine attributes culturally ascribed to femaleness. It is also used to describe theories that commend innate differences between women and men. C ...
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Feminist existentialism Feminism is a collection of movements aimed at defining, establishing, and defending equal political, economic, and social rights for women. Existentialism is a philosophical and cultural movement which holds that the starting point of philosophi ...
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Ecofeminism Ecofeminism integrates feminism and political ecology. Ecofeminist thinkers draw on the concept of gender to analyze relationships between humans and the natural world. The term was coined by the French writer Françoise d'Eaubonne in her 1974 ...
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Radical feminism Radical feminism is a perspective within feminism that calls for a radical re-ordering of society in which male supremacy is eliminated in all social and economic contexts, while recognizing that women's experiences are also affected by other ...
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Marxist feminism Marxist feminism is a philosophical variant of feminism that incorporates and extends Marxism, Marxist theory. Marxist feminism analyzes the ways in which women are exploited through capitalism and the individual ownership of private property. A ...
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Sex-positive feminism Sex-positive feminism, also known as pro-sex feminism, sex-radical feminism, or sexually liberal feminism, is a feminist movement centering on the idea that sexual freedom is an essential component of women's freedom. They oppose legal or soci ...
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Socialist feminism Socialist feminism rose in the 1960s and 1970s as an offshoot of the feminist movement and New Left that focuses upon the interconnectivity of the patriarchy and capitalism. However, the ways in which women's private, domestic, and public roles ...
* Psychoanalytic feminism *
Postmodern feminism Postmodern feminism is a branch of feminism that opposes a universal female subject. Drawing on postmodern philosophy, postmodern feminism questions traditional ideas about gender, identity, and power, while emphasizing the socially construct ...
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Black feminism Black feminism is a branch of feminism that focuses on the African-American woman's experiences and recognizes the intersectionality of racism and sexism.  Black feminism philosophy centers on the idea that "Black women are inherently va ...
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Islamic feminism Islamic feminism is a form of feminism concerned with the role of women in Islam. It aims for the full equality of all Muslims, regardless of gender, in public and private life. Islamic feminists advocate for women's rights, gender equality, and ...


Criticism of feminist sociology

Feminism Feminism is a range of socio-political movements and ideology, ideologies that aim to define and establish the political, economic, personal, and social gender equality, equality of the sexes. Feminism holds the position that modern soci ...
has had its fair share of criticism from both men and women. The support for feminist ideas is higher than the set-identification of being a feminist. There is a tendency in media for feminists to be ported negatively. Feminists "are less often associated with day-to-day work/leisure activities of regular women." Feminists have a negative portrayal because men and women belief they are trying to place women at the top of everything. There are feminists such as
Jean Bethke Elshtain Jean Paulette Bethke Elshtain (January 6, 1941 – August 11, 2013) was an American ethicist, political philosopher, and public intellectual. She was the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Professor of Social and Political Ethics in the University of C ...
, Daphne Patai, and
Camille Paglia Camille Anna Paglia ( ; born April 2, 1947) is an American academic, social critic and Feminism, feminist. Paglia was a professor at the University of the Arts (Philadelphia), University of the Arts in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania from 1984 until ...
who oppose certain aspects of feminism. They are all opposed to the elevation of woman's interests above men's because it is the opposite of what feminism stands for. They also believe radical feminism is harmful to men and women because it pits both groups against each other. Daphne Patai argues the term "anti-feminist" is used as a way to push away feminism in academic debates.


Anti-feminism

Anti-feminism is opposition to feminism in some or all of its forms. Anti-feminism has been around since the 19th century and was primarily focused on the opposition of
women's suffrage Women's suffrage is the women's rights, right of women to Suffrage, vote in elections. Several instances occurred in recent centuries where women were selectively given, then stripped of, the right to vote. In Sweden, conditional women's suffra ...
. Woman were encouraged to be assigned proper places in the public realm while avoiding other realms such as political spheres altogether. It was later discussed by antifeminists that women did not have a place in institutions of higher education because it was too high of a physical burden for women to handle. There were also arguments against women's right to join labor unions, entry into the labor force, sit on juries, birth control and control of their sexuality. It was not until 1975 the Supreme Court decided that women had the right to be selected for jury duty.


References


Further reading

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Feminist Sociology Sociology of gender Feminist theory Conflict theory