Qingliang Chengguan (; Korean: Jinggwan; Japanese: Chōgan, 738–839 or 737-838 CE), was an important scholar-monk and patriarch of the
Huayan school
The Huayan school of Buddhism (, Wade–Giles: ''Hua-Yen,'' "Flower Garland," from the Sanskrit "''Avataṃsaka''") is a Mahayana, Mahayana Buddhist tradition that developed in China during the Tang dynasty, Tang dynasty (618-907).Yü, Chün-fan ...
of
Chinese Buddhism
Chinese Buddhism or Han Buddhism ( zh, s=汉传佛教, t=漢傳佛教, first=t, poj=Hàn-thoân Hu̍t-kàu, j=Hon3 Cyun4 Fat6 Gaau3, p=Hànchuán Fójiào) is a Chinese form of Mahayana Buddhism. The Chinese Buddhist canonJiang Wu, "The Chin ...
also known as Huayan pusa (
bodhisattva
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is a person who has attained, or is striving towards, '' bodhi'' ('awakening', 'enlightenment') or Buddhahood. Often, the term specifically refers to a person who forgoes or delays personal nirvana or ''bodhi'' in ...
Avatamsaka) and Qingliang Guoshi (Imperial Preceptor "Clear and Cool", Clear and Cool is a name for
Mount Wutai
Mount Wutai, also known by its Chinese name Wutaishan and as is a sacred Buddhist site at the headwaters of the Qingshui in Shanxi Province, China. Its central area is surrounded by a cluster of flat-topped peaks or mesas roughly correspondin ...
)."Chengguan", in Buswell and Lopez (2013), ''The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism,'' pp. 179-178. Princeton University Press.Hamar, I "Chengguan" in Silk, J. Brill’s Encyclopedia ''of Buddhism, Volume II: Lives.''
Chengguan is most widely known for his extensive commentaries and sub-commentaries to the ''Avataṃsaka Sūtra'' (''Huayan jing''), as well as for his translation of a new '' Gandhavyuha sutra'' version, together with the Indian monk Prajña. Chengguan's commentaries on the ''Avataṃsaka'' quickly became one of the authoritative sources for Huayan doctrine. Chengguan lived through the reigns of nine
emperors
The word ''emperor'' (from , via ) can mean the male ruler of an empire. ''Empress'', the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife ( empress consort), mother/grandmother (empress dowager/ grand empress dowager), or a woman who rule ...
and was an honored teacher to seven emperors starting with Xuanzong () until Wenzong (). Chengguan was also the teacher of the influential Huayan patriarch
Zongmi
Guifeng Zongmi () (780–1 February 841) was a Tang dynasty Chinese Buddhist monk and scholar who is considered a patriarch of both the Huayan school and Chan Buddhism. Zongmi wrote a number of works on several Mahayana Sutras, Chan and Huayan ...
.
Life
Chengguan was a native of Yuezhou Shanyin (modern day
Shaoxing
Shaoxing is a prefecture-level city on the southern shore of Hangzhou Bay in northeastern Zhejiang province, China. Located on the south bank of the Qiantang River estuary, it borders Ningbo to the east, Taizhou, Zhejiang, Taizhou to the south ...
,
Zhejiang province
)
, translit_lang1_type2 =
, translit_lang1_info2 = ( Hangzhounese) ( Ningbonese) (Wenzhounese)
, image_skyline = 玉甑峰全貌 - panoramio.jpg
, image_caption = View of the Yandang Mountains
, image_map = Zhejiang i ...
). At the age of 11, he left home and became a novice at Baolin Monastery (寶林寺) in Benzhou (本州).Muller, Charles 澄觀 Chengguan Digital Dictionary of Buddhism. At the age of 20 (in 757 CE), he became a fully ordained monk under Tanyi (, 692-771) and took bodhisattva precepts under Changzhao (常照). Around 758 CE, he practiced at the renowned Qixia Monastery (棲霞寺) in Runzhou (present-day Zhengjiang) in
Jiangsu Province
Jiangsu is a coastal province in East China. It is one of the leading provinces in finance, education, technology, and tourism, with its capital in Nanjing. Jiangsu is the third smallest, but the fifth most populous, with a population of 84. ...
. His teacher there was the Vinaya master Li (醴律师, Li lüshi).
Chengguan traveled through central, western, and northern China, studying numerous works under various Buddhist teachers. He also visited Jinling (modern-day
Nanjing
Nanjing or Nanking is the capital of Jiangsu, a province in East China. The city, which is located in the southwestern corner of the province, has 11 districts, an administrative area of , and a population of 9,423,400.
Situated in the Yang ...
Hangzhou
Hangzhou, , Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ; formerly romanized as Hangchow is a sub-provincial city in East China and the capital of Zhejiang province. With a population of 13 million, the municipality comprises ten districts, two counti ...
,
Zhejiang Province
)
, translit_lang1_type2 =
, translit_lang1_info2 = ( Hangzhounese) ( Ningbonese) (Wenzhounese)
, image_skyline = 玉甑峰全貌 - panoramio.jpg
, image_caption = View of the Yandang Mountains
, image_map = Zhejiang i ...
), staying at Tianzhu Monastery (天竺寺), and dedicating himself to the practice and study of Huayan, the '' Avatamsaka Sutra'' and Fazang's commentaries''.''
His biography also mentions that he practiced Chan under Wutaia Wuming (722–793) of the Heze school of Heze Shenhui (670–762). Between 775 and 776 CE, Chengguan was also a student of Jingxi
Zhanran
Jingxi Zhanran (; J. Keikei Tannen; K. Hyŏnggye Tamyŏn, c. 711-782) was the sixth patriarch of the Tiantai school of Chinese Buddhism. Zhanran is considered to be the most important Tiantai figure after the founder Zhiyi."Zhanran", in Silk, Jonat ...
(711–782), the great reviver of the
Tiantai
Tiantai or T'ien-t'ai () is an East Asian Buddhist school of Mahāyāna Buddhism that developed in 6th-century China. Drawing from earlier Mahāyāna sources such as Madhyamaka, founded by Nāgārjuna, who is traditionally regarded as the f ...
school with whom Chengguan studied the Lotus and Vimalakirti sutras. Chengguan also practiced Chan in two other schools: under Huizhong (慧忠, 683–769) and Faqin (, 714–792) of the " Ox-Head School," as well as under Huiyun (, dates unknown), a disciple of Laoshan Yifu from the " Northern School. He was also learned in non-Buddhist subjects such as various Chinese philosophical classics, history, philology, the siddham script,
Indian philosophy
Indian philosophy consists of philosophical traditions of the Indian subcontinent. The philosophies are often called darśana meaning, "to see" or "looking at." Ānvīkṣikī means “critical inquiry” or “investigation." Unlike darśan ...
, the four
Vedas
FIle:Atharva-Veda samhita page 471 illustration.png, upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the ''Atharvaveda''.
The Vedas ( or ; ), sometimes collectively called the Veda, are a large body of relig ...
, the five sciences,
mantra
A mantra ( ; Pali: ''mantra'') or mantram (Devanagari: मन्त्रम्) is a sacred utterance, a numinous sound, a syllable, word or phonemes, or group of words (most often in an Indo-Iranian language like Sanskrit or Avestan) belie ...
s, and rituals.
However, Chengguan's primary focus was on the ''Avatamsaka Sutra'' and Huayan studies. Chengguan studied Huayan under Fashen ( 718–778), who was a student of the Huiyuan (, 673–743), a disciple of Fazang. Chengguan soon became known among elite circles as an erudite intellectual who lectured and commented on the ''Avataṃsaka Sūtra''.
In 776 CE Chengguan returned to the sacred mountain of Wutaishan (believed to be the abode of
Manjusri
Manjushri () is a ''bodhisattva'' who represents ''Prajñā (Buddhism), prajñā'' (transcendent wisdom) of the Buddhas in Mahāyāna Buddhism. The name "Mañjuśrī" is a combination of Sanskrit word "wikt:%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0 ...
), where he stayed for the next 15 years. He resided at Huayan Monastery (華嚴寺), where the monks built a pavilion for him to write his works. Between 784 and 787 CE, Chengguan wrote his commentaries on Śikṣānanda's new eighty fascicle translation of the ''Avatamsaka sutra'', which was completed in 799 CE. In the same year, Emperor Dezong granted Chengguan the title of Calm and Cool Imperial Teacher (Qingliang Guoshi). After completing the new translation of the Gandhavyuha, Emperor Dezong asked Chengguan to clarify the main concepts of the Avatamsaka. In 796 CE, he was invited by Emperor Dezong to
Chang'an
Chang'an (; zh, t=長安, s=长安, p=Cháng'ān, first=t) is the traditional name of the city now named Xi'an and was the capital of several Chinese dynasties, ranging from 202 BCE to 907 CE. The site has been inhabited since Neolithic time ...
to participate in the translation of the '' Gandhavyuha sutra'' with the Indian master Prajña (般若; 734–c. 810. Emperor Dezong was so pleased with Chengguan that he awarded him a purple robe and the title of "Master of Buddhist Teachings" (''jiaoshou heshang''). Chengguan received numerous honorary titles: Master of the Purple Robe (796), Imperial Teacher ( guoshi) (799), Monastic Professor (da senglu), Chief Monk (sengtong), and Dharma Master Qingliang (795).
In 810 CE, former Emperor Xianzong (r. 805–806) summoned him and asked for an explanation of the term " dharmadhatu." After this meeting, Chengguan was appointed as sengtong ("monastic supervisor"). He was a respected teacher by all emperors; there were nine emperors during his lifetime, and he taught seven of them.
Chengguan was also a serious Buddhist practitioner. According to Guo Cheen, he maintained various self-determined vows including "always keeping his sash and alms bowl by his side, avoiding looking at women, avoiding visits to laypeople’s homes, never lying down to sleep, abandoning any fame or fortune, regularly reciting the ''Lotus Sūtra'', regularly teaching on the ''Avataṃsaka Sūtra,'' regularly studying
Mahāyāna
Mahāyāna ( ; , , ; ) is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, Buddhist texts#Mahāyāna texts, texts, Buddhist philosophy, philosophies, and practices developed in ancient India ( onwards). It is considered one of the three main ex ...
Huayan School
The Huayan school of Buddhism (, Wade–Giles: ''Hua-Yen,'' "Flower Garland," from the Sanskrit "''Avataṃsaka''") is a Mahayana, Mahayana Buddhist tradition that developed in China during the Tang dynasty, Tang dynasty (618-907).Yü, Chün-fan ...
'' offer two specific sets of his ten vows that are equal in rigor but with slight variations.
Thought
Doctrinal issues
Chengguan's thought attempts to follow
Fazang
Fazang (; 643–712) was a Sogdian- Chinese Buddhist scholar, translator, and religious leader of the Tang dynasty. He was the third patriarch of the Huayan school of East Asian Buddhism, a key figure at the Chinese Imperial Court, and an inf ...
's thought closely. Due to this, Chengguan criticized Huiyuan (Fazang's student) for not adhering to Fazang's teachings closely enough. For example, Huiyuan modified Fazang's system of doctrinal classification ( panjiao). This system divided all Buddhist teachings into five:
Hīnayāna
Hīnayāna is a Sanskrit term that was at one time applied collectively to the '' Śrāvakayāna'' and '' Pratyekabuddhayāna'' paths of Buddhism.
This term appeared around the first or second century. The Hīnayāna is considered as the prelim ...
teaching, Elementary Mahāyāna teaching (
Madhyamaka
Madhyamaka ("middle way" or "centrism"; ; ; Tibetic languages, Tibetan: དབུ་མ་པ་ ; ''dbu ma pa''), otherwise known as Śūnyavāda ("the Śūnyatā, emptiness doctrine") and Niḥsvabhāvavāda ("the no Svabhava, ''svabhāva'' d ...
and
Yogacara
Yogachara (, IAST: ') is an influential tradition of Buddhist philosophy and psychology emphasizing the study of cognition, perception, and consciousness through the interior lens of meditation, as well as philosophical reasoning (hetuvidyā). ...
), Final Mahayana (
Buddha nature
In Buddhist philosophy and Buddhist paths to liberation, soteriology, Buddha-nature (Chinese language, Chinese: , Japanese language, Japanese: , , Sanskrit: ) is the innate potential for all Sentient beings (Buddhism), sentient beings to bec ...
teachings, '' Awakening of Faith''), Sudden (Vimalakirti sutra) and Perfect Teaching (the Huayan One Vehicle). Huiyuan included Confucianism and Daoism into this system. But Chengguan criticized Huiyuan and those who saw
Taoism
Taoism or Daoism (, ) is a diverse philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to China, emphasizing harmony with the Tao ( zh, p=dào, w=tao4). With a range of meaning in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', ' ...
and
Confucianism
Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China, and is variously described as a tradition, philosophy, Religious Confucianism, religion, theory of government, or way of li ...
part of Buddhism's doctrinal system. Huiyuan had also rejected the idea that the Sudden teaching belonged in a doctrinal classification system, since the sudden teaching is based on utter silence and thus it has no doctrinal content, instead it is merely a statement about the inexpressibility of ultimate truth. Chengguan also criticized this view, seeing the "Sudden teaching" as a proper doctrine of its own.Van Norden, Bryan and Nicholaos Jones "Huayan Buddhism" ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Winter 2019 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
Syncretism
Chengguan developed Huayan thought in new directions by drawing on various Buddhist schools including various Chan schools, Xuanzang's Weishi and
Tiantai
Tiantai or T'ien-t'ai () is an East Asian Buddhist school of Mahāyāna Buddhism that developed in 6th-century China. Drawing from earlier Mahāyāna sources such as Madhyamaka, founded by Nāgārjuna, who is traditionally regarded as the f ...
.Gregory, Peter N. (2002). ''Tsung Mi and the Sinification of Buddhism'', p. 64. University of Hawaii Press (Studies in East Asian Buddhism, 16). Sources on Chengguan's life, like Peixiu's epitaph, mention his prolific studies of various Chinese Buddhist traditions and texts, including numerous
Mahayana sutras
The Mahayana sutras are Buddhist texts that are accepted as wikt:canon, canonical and authentic Buddhist texts, ''buddhavacana'' in Mahayana, Mahayana Buddhist sanghas. These include three types of sutras: Those spoken by the Buddha; those spoke ...
,
Huayan
The Huayan school of Buddhism (, Wade–Giles: ''Hua-Yen,'' "Flower Garland," from the Sanskrit "''Avataṃsaka''") is a Mahayana Buddhist tradition that developed in China during the Tang dynasty (618-907).Yü, Chün-fang (2020). ''Chinese Bu ...
, the works of the
Yogacara
Yogachara (, IAST: ') is an influential tradition of Buddhist philosophy and psychology emphasizing the study of cognition, perception, and consciousness through the interior lens of meditation, as well as philosophical reasoning (hetuvidyā). ...
Zhiyi
Zhiyi (; 538–597 CE) also called Dashi Tiantai (天台大師) and Zhizhe (智者, "Wise One"), was a Chinese Bhikkhu, Buddhist monk, Buddhist philosophy, philosopher, meditation teacher, and Exegesis, exegete. He is considered to be the foun ...
(such as the ''Mohezhiguan''), Daosheng and Sengzhao.
Chengguan often integrates the perspectives of these other traditions in his Huayan commentaries. For example, while Fazang generally criticized the Weishi school of
Xuanzang
Xuanzang (; ; 6 April 6025 February 664), born Chen Hui or Chen Yi (), also known by his Sanskrit Dharma name Mokṣadeva, was a 7th-century Chinese Bhikkhu, Buddhist monk, scholar, traveller, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making ...
, Chengguan often relies on and quotes Xuanzang's ''
Cheng weishi lun
''Cheng Weishi Lun'' (, CWSL, Sanskrit reconstruction: ''*Vijñaptimātrāsiddhiśāstra'', English: ''The Treatise on the Demonstration of Consciousness-only,'' Taisho Catalog number 1585), is a comprehensive treatise on the philosophy of Yogac ...
Chan Buddhism
Chan (; of ), from Sanskrit '' dhyāna'' (meaning " meditation" or "meditative state"), is a Chinese school of Mahāyāna Buddhism. It developed in China from the 6th century CE onwards, becoming especially popular during the Tang and Song ...
(while Fazang merely saw it as referring to the teaching of
Vimalakirti
Vimalakīrti ( ' "stainless, undefiled" + ' "fame, glory, reputation") is a bodhisattva and the central figure in the ', As such, Chengguan seems to have highly respected the teachings of Chan Buddhism, seeing it as only second to Huayan. Furthermore, in his sub-commentaries, Chengguan says that his work relies on "integrating the Chan practices of both the Southern and Northern schools" and "folding-in the mystical intents of Tientai and the Three Contemplations of
Nanyue
Nanyue ( zh, c=南越 or 南粵, p=Nányuè, cy=, j=Naam4 Jyut6, l=Southern Yue, , ), was an ancient kingdom founded in 204 BC by the Chinese general Zhao Tuo, whose family (known in Vietnamese as the Triệu dynasty) continued to rule until ...
."Guo Cheen (2014), p. 16. This indicates that Chengguan was conscious about his syncretic tendencies.
Regarding the Chan Buddhist influences, while Chengguan draws on the sources of Northern, Southern and Oxhead Chan schools, he did not consider himself as belonging to any of these, instead claiming that he was from the "school of mind" (''xinzong'', 心宗). As such, while he was influenced by Chan, Yoshizu Yoshihide argues that Chengguan should not be seen as being associated with any Chan school per se, and instead he should be seen as a Huayan master who drew on and evaluated various Chan sources. Chengguan was also highly critical of Chan masters who ignored or disparaged the doctrinal study of Mahayana scriptures.
Chengguan also draws on Confucian and Daoist sources in his work, though he is clear that this is merely a skillful means and that he sees these teachings as inferior to Buddhism. As such, he said that he was "borrowing their words but not adopting their meaning."
The Fourfold Dharmadhatus
Chengguan's main unique contribution to Huayan thought is the theory of the fourfold Dharmadhatu or four Dharmadhatus (). This theory is found in Chengguan's ''Meditative Perspectives on the Huayan Dharmadhatu'' ().Fox, Alan (2015). ''The Practice of Huayan Buddhism'', The Dharmadhatu is the ultimate reality that must be known by the bodhisattva and the four dharmadhatus are four ways of understanding ultimate truth.
The four dharmadhātu are:
# The dharmadhātu of phenomena (), which is the view in which all dharmas are seen as particular separate phenomena () and which is to be seen as like an illusion. In the widely used Huayan metaphor of the water and the waves, the phenomena are symbolized by the waves.
# The dharmadhātu of principle () which sees all phenomena as arising from ''li'' (, the ultimate principle), which is "emptiness", the “One Mind” () and
Buddha nature
In Buddhist philosophy and Buddhist paths to liberation, soteriology, Buddha-nature (Chinese language, Chinese: , Japanese language, Japanese: , , Sanskrit: ) is the innate potential for all Sentient beings (Buddhism), sentient beings to bec ...
, it is the source or origin of all dharmas as well as the immutable nature of all dharmas, the ultimate essence of all things. It is the
non-dual
Nondualism includes a number of philosophical and spiritual traditions that emphasize the absence of fundamental duality or separation in existence. This viewpoint questions the boundaries conventionally imposed between self and other, min ...
Absolute
Absolute may refer to:
Companies
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according to Guo Cheen. In the metaphor of the water and the waves, the principle / essence is symbolized by water.
# The dharmadhātu of the non-obstruction of principle and phenomena () this is the interpenetration and interfusion of all phenomena and the ultimate principle, the pure source / essence. In the metaphor of the water and the waves, this level is symbolized by how waves ''are'' water.
# The dharmadhātu of the non-obstruction of llphenomena (), which refers to the perfect interfusion of all phenomena with each other. While all things are perfectly interfused, they also do not lose their particularity. Since all phenomena share the same ultimate source, they are interconnected and interpenetrating. In the water-wave metaphor, this is symbolized by how all waves are connected due to being part of the same ocean.
According to Imre Hamar, while Fazang emphasized the non-obstruction and interfusion of all dharmas, Chengguan stressed the non-obstruction of principle and phenomena. Hamar writes that "according to his interpretation, this common source (which is the One Mind, the pure source) makes possible the interrelated existence of all phenomena."
Works
Sutra Commentaries
Chengguan was an esteemed monk revered for his commentarial literature authoritative during his time and throughout later generations in East Asia. Chengguan authored over thirty works. The most important of his writings are ''A Commentary on the *Mahāvaipulya Buddhāvataṃsaka-sūtra'' (''Da Fangguang Fo Huayanjing Shu'' 大方廣佛華嚴經疏 T. 1735) and ''A Record of the Explanation on the Meaning of the Commentary on the Mahāvaipulya Buddhāvataṃsaka-sūtra'' (''Da Fangguang Fo Huayanjing Shu Yanyi Chao'' 大方廣佛華嚴經隨疏演義鈔 T. 1736). His initial commentary was seen as difficult and so his further comments and elaborations were collected by his disciples Sengrui (僧睿), Zhikai (智愷), and others as a sub-commentary. After Chengguan completed the new translation of the Gaṇḍavyūha-sūtra in 798 along with the Indian Prajña, he also composed a commentary to this, titled ''Zhenyuan xinyi Huayan jing shu'' (貞元新譯華嚴經疏, X. 227, A New Commentary on the Huayan jing written during the Zhenyuan period).
Chengguan's commentaries are among the most complex and detailed Chinese Buddhist sutra commentaries. It contains a detailed introduction called the “profound discussion” (''xuantan'' ��談, a sophisticated structural analysis of the sutra (the ''kepan'' ��判 and a close explanation of the sutra's contents, sentence by sentence. In his commentary on the ''Avatamsaka'', Chengguan cites from over 300 Buddhist texts, making it a kind of doctrinal
summa
Summa and its diminutive summula (plural ''summae'' and ''summulae'', respectively) was a medieval didactics literary genre written in Latin, born during the 12th century, and popularized in 13th century Europe. In its simplest sense, they might ...
or encyclopedia of Buddhist doctrine. He also cites Chinese classics as well.
Other texts
Chengguan also wrote various other shorter texts, some of the most important being:
* ''Thematic Essentials of the Huayan jing'' ()
* ''Analysis of the Five Aggregates'' ()
* ''Sansheng yuanrong guanmen'' (; ''Contemplations of the Perfect Interfusion of the Three Holy Ones'', T. 1882) which teaches on the interfused nature of Samantabhadra, Mañjuśrī, and Vairocana.
* ''Huayan xinyao famen'' (華嚴心要法門; ''The Essence of the Huayan Mind'', X. 1005), written to answer questions by Emperor Shunzong (順宗; r. 805). Zongmi wrote a commentary to this. It is also included in the '' Jingde chuandeng lu'' (景德傳燈錄, T. 2076; ''Record of the transmission of the lamp from the Jingde period'').
* ''Huayan fajie xuanjing'' (華嚴法界玄鏡; ''The mystical mirror of the Huayan Dharmadhātu'', T. 1883), a commentary on Dushun's ''Huayan fajie guanmen'' (華嚴法界觀門; Discernment of the Dharmadhātu). It has been translated by
Thomas Cleary
Thomas Francis Cleary (24 April 1949 – 20 June 2021) was an American translator and author of more than 80 books related to Buddhist, Taoist, Confucian, and Muslim classics, and of ''The Art of War'', a treatise on management, military stra ...
.
* ''Xinyi Huayan jing qi chu jiu hui song shizhang'' (新譯華嚴經七處九 會頌釋章; ''Poems of the seven locations and nine meetings of the new translation of the Huayan jing and their explanation'', T. 1738).
Editions of his commentaries
In the eleventh century, Jinshui Jingyuan 淨源 (1011-1088 CE) became known as the first editor to merge Chengguan’s Commentaries into each line of the 80 fascicle Chinese ''Avatamsaka Sutra'', resulting in the publication that is the ''Exegesis on the Commentaries to the Avataṃsaka Sūtra'' (''Huayanjing Shu Zhu'', 華嚴經疏注).
The sub-commentaries remained a separate publication. Preeminent commentators of Yuan and Ming continued to annotate, study, and lecture on Chengguan’s commentaries. In the
Ming Dynasty
The Ming dynasty, officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming was the last imperial dynasty of ...
, Miaoming (妙明) compiled Chengguan’s Commentaries and Subcommentaries into one publication for the first time. They did not mesh well, however, because Chengguan’s ''Outline to the Commentaries to the Avataṃsaka Sūtra'' (''Huayanjing Shu Kewen'' 華嚴經疏科文) was still missing.
In 1912, laymen Xu Weiru 徐蔚如 (1878-1937 CE) and others edited Chengguan’s Commentaries and sub-commentaries based on a version of the ''Outline to the Commentaries to the Huayanjing'' that survived the Chinese persecutions by being in hiding in Japan. In 1936, an edition of the ''Avatamsaka'', the commentary and sub-commentary edited by Chiang Tsu Chuang (將竹莊) was published in Shanghai. Since then, more than 20 editions of compilations combining the ''Avataṃsaka Sūtra'', Chengguan’s Commentaries and sub-commentaries based on his ''Outline'' have been disseminated. Different versions of the Chinese
Tripiṭaka
There are several Buddhist canons, which refers to the various scriptural collections of Buddhist sacred scriptures or the various Buddhist scriptural canons.
have selected to include different editions and portions of these compilations. More recently, the ''Xinxiu Huayan jing shuchao'' (新修華嚴經疏鈔, 20 volumes) a revised edition of this work led by Chengyi (成一), was published by the Huayan Society (華嚴蓮社) in Taibei between 2001 and 2004.