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Mushika dynasty, also spelled Mushaka, also Eli or Ezhi, was a minor dynastic power that held sway over the region in and around Mount Ezhi ( Ezhimala) in present-day
Kannur Kannur (), formerly known in English as Cannanore, is a city and Municipal corporation (India), municipal corporation in the state of Kerala, India. It is the administrative headquarters of the Kannur district and situated north of the maj ...
, northern Kerala, south India. The country of the Ezhimala, ruled by an ancient chiefly lineage ("the Muvan"), appears in early historic (pre-Pallava) south India. Early Tamil poems contain several references to the exploits of Nannan, the ruler of Ezhimala (''fl. c.'' 180 AD) who famously defeated the Tagadur Satiyaputra ruler. Nannan was known as a great enemy of the early Chera rulers. The famous Kottayam Coin Hoard, a massive cache of mostly Julio-Claudian (Roman) coins, was also discovered from the Ezhimala country. The Ezhimala polity gradually developed into a monarchical state (known as the "Kolladesham") in the early medieval period and came under the influence of the medieval Chera kingdom. The hereditary title of the Mushika kings in the medieval period was "Ramaghata Mushaka" (
Malayalam Malayalam (; , ) is a Dravidian languages, Dravidian language spoken in the Indian state of Kerala and the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry (union territory), Puducherry (Mahé district) by the Malayali people. It is one of ...
: "Iramakuta Muvar"). Mushika royals seem to have assisted the Chera kings in their struggle against the
Chola Empire The Chola Empire, which is often referred to as the Imperial Cholas, was a medieval thalassocratic empire based in southern India that was ruled by the Chola dynasty, and comprised overseas dominions, protectorates and spheres of influence ...
. Two subsequent Chola inscriptions (c. 1005 AD,
Rajaraja I Rajaraja I ( Middle Tamil: ''Rājarāja Cōḻaṉ''; Classical Sanskrit: ''Rājarāja Śōḷa''; 3 November 947 – January/February 1014), also known as Rajaraja the Great, was a Chola emperor who reigned from 985 to 1014. He was known fo ...
and c. 1018–19, Rajadhiraja) mention "the defeat of the Kolladesham" and "the fall of the Iramakuta Muvar". The presence of the Chola soldiery in north Kerala (1020 AD) is confirmed by the Eramam inscription. The kingdom survived the Chera state, and came to be known as "Kolathunad" (
Kannur Kannur (), formerly known in English as Cannanore, is a city and Municipal corporation (India), municipal corporation in the state of Kerala, India. It is the administrative headquarters of the Kannur district and situated north of the maj ...
-
Kasaragod Kasaragod () is a municipal town and the administrative headquarters of the Kasaragod district in the state of Kerala, India. Established in 1966, Kasaragod was the first municipal town in the district. It is the northernmost district of Kera ...
area) in the post-Chera period. The '' Mushaka Vamsa Kavya'', a dynastic chronicle composed in the 11th century by poet Athula, describes the history of the Mushika lineage. The medieval Mushikas were considered as Kshatriyas of Soma Vamsa. The dynasty also claimed descent from the legendary Heheya Kshatriyas. The economies of the early historic Ezhimala polity and the medieval Mushika state were heavily dependent on the Indian Ocean spice trade, particularly in pepper,
cardamom Cardamom (), sometimes cardamon or cardamum, is a spice made from the seeds of several plants in the genus (biology), genera ''Elettaria'' and ''Amomum'' in the family Zingiberaceae. Both genera are native to the Indian subcontinent and Indon ...
, and other spices from the interior hills (rather than on wet rice cultivation or agriculture).


Etymology

The term "Mushika" or "Mushaka" arvatais the
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...
translation of the ancient
Tamil Tamil may refer to: People, culture and language * Tamils, an ethno-linguistic group native to India, Sri Lanka, and some other parts of Asia **Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka ** Myanmar or Burmese Tamils, Tamil people of Ind ...
name "Ezhimalai" (the Ezhil Kunram). The name was incorrectly pronounced as "Elimala" (thus "the Mountain of the Rats") also. The term "Mushika" also referred to the tree called Vaka (Albizia lebbeck or Acacia sirissa), which was sacred to the rulers of Ezhimala, in addition to meaning "rat". The Ezhimala hill is described in ''Mushaka Vamsa Kavya'' as the "Mushaka Parvata". The early historic fort of the Mushikas, under the Ettikulam Fort, is currently protected by Department of Archaeology, Kerala.


Origins

The ancient ruling family of the Ezhimala seems to have existed in northern Kerala at least from early historic (pre-Pallava) period. Ancient Tamil poems describe the polity of Ezhimalai (also "Ezhilmalai") on the northern edge of Tamilakam on its west (Malabar) coast. The port known as "Naravu" was located in Ezhimalai country (Akam, 97). The rulers of Ezhilmalai were the most prominent hill chieftains of ancient Kerala. The "Muvan" chieftain of the early Tamil poems, described as an adversary of the early Chera rulers, is also identical with the Muvan of Ezhimalai. The early historic Ezhimala clan had matrimonial alliances with the Chera, Pandya and Chola rulers. The family was also related to that of the rulers of Kantiramala. ''
Mahabharata The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; , , ) is one of the two major Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epics of ancient India revered as Smriti texts in Hinduism, the other being the ''Ramayana, Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the events and aftermath of the Kuru ...
'', the Sanskrit epic poem of ancient India, also mention the Mushika as one of the kingdoms of the deep South of India, and is grouped with the Cheras,
Pandyas The Pandya dynasty (), also referred to as the Pandyas of Madurai, was an ancient Tamil dynasty of South India, and among the four great kingdoms of Tamilakam, the other three being the Pallavas, the Cholas and the Cheras. Existing sinc ...
and
Cholas The Chola dynasty () was a Tamil dynasty originating from Southern India. At its height, it ruled over the Chola Empire, an expansive maritime empire. The earliest datable references to the Chola are from inscriptions dated to the 3rd cen ...
.


Ezhimala Nannan

There are repeated references to several rulers with the name or title "Nannan" in early Tamil literature. These include, among others, the '' Akananuru'' and ''
Purananuru The ''Purananuru'' (, literally "four hundred oemsin the genre puram"), sometimes called ''Puram'' or ''Purappattu'', is a classical Tamil literature, Tamil poetic work and traditionally the last of the Eight Anthologies (''Ettuthokai'') i ...
'' poems, the '' Natrinai'', the '' Pathitruppathu'' and the '' Kurunthokai''. Nannan was the ruler of Ezhimalai ("the Ezhil Kunram") in northern Kerala. The Vaka tree is described as the sacred tutelary tree of Nannan. He was known as a great enemy of the early (pre-
Pallava The Pallava dynasty existed from 275 CE to 897 CE, ruling a significant portion of South India, the Deccan, also known as Tondaimandalam. The Pallavas played a crucial role in shaping in particular southern Indian history and heritage. The ...
) Chera rulers (western Tamil Nadu and central Kerala). He is also marked out as the hunter chieftain of the "vetar" descent group ("vetar-ko-man").


Nannan (the ruler of Pazhi)

Nannan is described as the ruler of "Pazhi, near the Ezhil Hill" and "Param" by poet Paranar (''Akam'', 142 and 152). He is also reported as the master of the Ezhil Hill, Puzhinadu country, and certain "Viyalur". There are additional references to certain "Nannan" as the ruler of the Punnadu country, Tulunadu country and the Konkanam region and the Thondai Mandalam (the later in "Malaipadukkadam"). It is reported that Nannan was renowned for his gold ornaments and gilded chariots. * Nannan was a companion of the Ay ruler (southern Kerala) Eyinan. Poems 351 and 396 from the ''Purananuru'' characterize Nannan and Ay Eyinan as relatives and as extremely close friends. So intimate was their relationship that Nannan renamed the "Pirampu" hills in his country as "Ay-pirampu". * In the battle of Pazhi, the warriors of Nannan led by certain Njimili (or Minjili; the master of Param) defeated the Thagadur Adigan or Adigaiman ruler (the Satiyaputra) Neduman Anji. The Satiyaputra, on behalf of the Chera ruler Perum Cheral Irumporai, had invaded Pazhi of Nannan with a large force. The Satiyaputra ruler was slain by Njimili/Minjili in the battle ("who won fame by putting to the sword vast numbers of enemies"). In the battle at Pazhi, Njimili killed Ay Eyinan but was himself also killed ("the battle of Pazhi Paranthalai", ''Akam'', 141, 181, and 396, and ''Natrinai'', 265). * In a battle at Kazhumalam, Nannan defeated a chieftain called Pindan (''Akam'', 152, and ''Natrinai'', 270). Poet Kudavayur Kirattanar speaks about the defeat of certain Pazhayan by Nannan nd his associates Ettai, Atti, Gangan, Katti and Punthurai(''Akam'', 44). * It is mentioned that the "Kosar" people, associated with Chellur (Perinchellur, modern
Taliparamba Taliparamba (also known as Perinchelloor and Lakshmipuram) is a Municipalities of Kerala, Municipality and List of taluks of Kerala, Taluk of Kannur district in Kerala state, India. The municipal town spreads over an area of and is inha ...
), attacked the Ezhimala country of Nannan, defeating him and even cutting down his totemic mango tree. Nannan had reportedly killed a young girl who had unknowingly eaten a fruit that had fallen from his sacred mango tree. This act provoked the Kosar, leading to their attack and Nannan's eventual defeat. * Nannan was eventually defeated and killed by Chera ruler "Kalankaykkanni" Narmudi Cheral (''fl. c.'' 180 AD) at the battle of "Kadambin Peruvayil"/"Vakai Perunthurai" (''Akam'', 152, 199, ''Pathitruppathu'', 40 and 4th decad, panegyric). According to the Pathitruppathu 40, the Chera ruler, after murdering Nannan, chopped down the sacred Vaka tree.


Other references

Nannan (c. 210 AD), probably the son of the ruler of the same name, is also introduced in the early Tamil poems. He is celebrated in "Malaipadukkadam" by poet Perum Kausika and is also mentioned by Mankudi Marudan in "Maduraikkanchi". Another ruler of by the name annanis infamous for killing a young women (apparently for eating a fruit
ango An , or , is a Japanese language, Japanese term for a three-month period of intense training for students of Zen Buddhism, lasting anywhere from 90 to 100 days. The practice during ango consists of meditation (zazen), study, and work (Samu (Ze ...
that came floating down to her in a stream). Another "Nannan" with the title "Udiyan" ("Nannan Udiyan"; ''Akam,'' 258: 1) is mentioned as the "master of gold filled Pazhi". There references to certain "Nannan", the ruler of "Konkanam". He is described as the Nannan dwelling in "Kanam" and as "Konkanam Kizhan" (the lord of Konkanam), and as the lord of the mountain Konkanam ("Ko Perunkanam") (''Akam'', 392). Nannan is perhaps identical with "Nandana", the ancient ruler of mentioned in the medieval poem ''Mushaka Vamsa.''


Economy

The primary resource base for the Ezhimala polity (in the early historic period) and the Mushika state (medieval) was Indian Ocean
spice trade The spice trade involved historical civilizations in Asia, Northeast Africa and Europe. Spices, such as cinnamon, cassia, cardamom, ginger, pepper, nutmeg, star anise, clove, and turmeric, were known and used in antiquity and traded in t ...
(esp. pepper,
cardamom Cardamom (), sometimes cardamon or cardamum, is a spice made from the seeds of several plants in the genus (biology), genera ''Elettaria'' and ''Amomum'' in the family Zingiberaceae. Both genera are native to the Indian subcontinent and Indon ...
and other spices from the interior hills) rather than agriculture (wet paddy cultivation). Ezhimala Hill was the first landfall on the
Malabar Coast The Malabar Coast () is the southwestern region of the Indian subcontinent. It generally refers to the West Coast of India, western coastline of India stretching from Konkan to Kanyakumari. Geographically, it comprises one of the wettest regio ...
for the sailors in the
Arabian Sea The Arabian Sea () is a region of sea in the northern Indian Ocean, bounded on the west by the Arabian Peninsula, Gulf of Aden and Guardafui Channel, on the northwest by Gulf of Oman and Iran, on the north by Pakistan, on the east by India, and ...
. Other famous (medieval) ports in the country included Madayi, Valapattanam and Dharmapattanam (
Dharmadam Dharmadom or Dharmadam is a census town, census village in Thalassery City in Kannur district in the state of Kerala, India. This town is located in between Anjarakandi River and Ummanchira River, and Palayad town and Arabian Sea. It is known f ...
). The famous Kottayam Coin Hoard, a massive cache of mostly Julio-Claudian (Roman) coins, was discovered around the year 1847 (1846-50) "on the slope of a hill by the rabiansea" near Kannur (Cannanore). It is speculated that coins amounted to around 8000
aurei The ''aureus'' ( ''aurei'', 'golden') was the main gold coin of ancient Rome from the 1st century BC to the early 4th century AD, when it was replaced by the ''solidus (coin), solidus''. This type of coin was sporadically issued during the Roman ...
(if approximated). With few exceptions the coins were all of gold and were not worn by usage (and not deliberately slashed with a chisel). The composition (coin types and number) of the hoard is not known exactly. According to extant reports, there were at least 9 coins of emperor
Augustus Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian (), was the founder of the Roman Empire, who reigned as the first Roman emperor from 27 BC until his death in A ...
, 28 of
Tiberius Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus ( ; 16 November 42 BC – 16 March AD 37) was Roman emperor from AD 14 until 37. He succeeded his stepfather Augustus, the first Roman emperor. Tiberius was born in Rome in 42 BC to Roman politician Tiberius Cl ...
, two of
Caligula Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (31 August 12 – 24 January 41), also called Gaius and Caligula (), was Roman emperor from AD 37 until his assassination in 41. He was the son of the Roman general Germanicus and Augustus' granddaughter Ag ...
, and 16 coins of
Claudius Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( ; ; 1 August 10 BC – 13 October AD 54), or Claudius, was a Roman emperor, ruling from AD 41 to 54. A member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, Claudius was born to Nero Claudius Drusus, Drusus and Ant ...
and 16 coins of
Nero Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( ; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68) was a Roman emperor and the final emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 until his ...
(a total of 71 coins, the last 32 in the Travancore Collection). There were also descriptions of coins of
Caracalla Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (born Lucius Septimius Bassianus, 4 April 188 – 8 April 217), better known by his nickname Caracalla (; ), was Roman emperor from 198 to 217 AD, first serving as nominal co-emperor under his father and then r ...
(initially misidentified as
Antoninus Pius Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Pius (; ; 19 September 86 – 7 March 161) was Roman emperor from AD 138 to 161. He was the fourth of the Five Good Emperors from the Nerva–Antonine dynasty. Born into a senatorial family, Antoninus held var ...
). The (medieval) Mushika kings appear to have encouraged a variety of merchant guilds in their kingdom. Famous Indian guilds such as the anjuvannam, the manigramam, the valanchiyar and the nanadeshikal show their presence in the kingdom. The kings are also described as great champions of
Hindu religion Hinduism () is an umbrella term for a range of Indian religious and spiritual traditions ( ''sampradaya''s) that are unified by adherence to the concept of ''dharma'', a cosmic order maintained by its followers through rituals and right ...
and temples. Some Mushika rulers are known for their patronage to a famous
Buddhist Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...
vihara in central Kerala. Presence of Jewish merchants is also speculated in the ports of Mushika kingdom. A location in Madayi is still known as "the Jew's pond" (the Jutakkulam).


Naravu/Naura

The port known as "Naravu" was located in Ezhimalai country (Akam, 97). It is generally identified with Naura, which is mentioned in the ''
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea The ''Periplus of the Erythraean Sea'' (), also known by its Latin name as the , is a Greco-Roman world, Greco-Roman periplus written in Koine Greek that describes navigation and Roman commerce, trading opportunities from Roman Egyptian ports lik ...
'' as a port somewhere north of Tyndis and
Muziris ''Muciṟi'' (, ), commonly anglicized as Muziris (, Malayalam, Old Malayalam: ''Muciṟi'' or ''Muciṟipaṭṭaṇam'', possibly identical with the medieval ''Muyiṟikkōṭŭ'') was an ancient harbour and urban centre on India's Malabar C ...
. Naura is generally identified with present-day Kannur (Cannanore). According to both ''
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea The ''Periplus of the Erythraean Sea'' (), also known by its Latin name as the , is a Greco-Roman world, Greco-Roman periplus written in Koine Greek that describes navigation and Roman commerce, trading opportunities from Roman Egyptian ports lik ...
'' and
Pliny the Elder Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/24 79), known in English as Pliny the Elder ( ), was a Roman Empire, Roman author, Natural history, naturalist, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the Roman emperor, emperor Vesp ...
, Naura was located in the Tamil south India ( Limyrike/Limerike or Damirica/Damirike), but outside the influence of the Chera rulers. The term "naravu" means "honey" or "liquor" in early Tamil.


Political geography

The Ezhimala country can ben located to north of the Chera country. Nannan is described as the ruler of a land called "Punnadu", and settlements such as Viyalur and he slopes ofPazhi, the Ezhil Hill, and Param. He is also called the lord of "Puzhinadu", and "Tulu Nadu". There are other references to certain "Nannan", the ruler of "Konkanam" and the "Nannan" seated at Tondai Mandalam (the later in the "Malaipadukkadam"). Param was the former base of chieftain Minjili, who died at the battle of Pazhip Paranthalai. The country of Ezhimala was near to the land of the Kosar people and the country of the Kadambu tribe. It also mentioned that Nannan fought and died in the battle against Narmudi Cheral at the great harbour or "Perunthurai". Akananuru describes the country of Nannan as follows. '' in the slopes of Pāḻi in the tall/long Ēḻil mountain of Naṉṉaṉ with a pearl necklace, the chief of Pāram with joy of charity/abundant toddy, who liberally gives/flings elephant bulls ue hisfamous liberalism, the chief with a spear who overcame Piṇṭaṉ while breaking isopposition on the battlefield, iṇṭaṉwho very much swarmed around showing copious enmity like a colony of small white'' ''shrimps that attacks while the good vessels which give the wealth (taṉam) of great harbour (peruntuṟai) with seashore groves at the extension of the sounding water, had been sundered/dispersed ' Ezhimala Hill was the first point of contact on the
Malabar Coast The Malabar Coast () is the southwestern region of the Indian subcontinent. It generally refers to the West Coast of India, western coastline of India stretching from Konkan to Kanyakumari. Geographically, it comprises one of the wettest regio ...
for the navigators of the
Arabian Sea The Arabian Sea () is a region of sea in the northern Indian Ocean, bounded on the west by the Arabian Peninsula, Gulf of Aden and Guardafui Channel, on the northwest by Gulf of Oman and Iran, on the north by Pakistan, on the east by India, and ...
. Other renowned (medieval) ports in the region included Madayi, Valapattanam, and Dharmapattanam (
Dharmadam Dharmadom or Dharmadam is a census town, census village in Thalassery City in Kannur district in the state of Kerala, India. This town is located in between Anjarakandi River and Ummanchira River, and Palayad town and Arabian Sea. It is known f ...
). The presence of Jewish traders is also believed to have existed in the ports of the Mushika kingdom. A site in Madayi is still referred to as 'the Jew's Pond' (the Jutakkulam).


Medieval Mushikas

Medieval "Kolla-desam" (or the "Mushika-rajya") stretched on the banks of Kavvai,
Kuppam Kuppam is a City in Chittoor district of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. It is located 115.8 kilometers south-east of Bangalore, the capital city of Karnataka, and 243 kilometers west of Chennai, the capital of Tamil Nadu. It is the headqu ...
and Valappattanam rivers. It came under the influence of the medieval Chera kingdom in the early medieval period. The reign of Chera ruler Vijayaraga (late 9th century AD) probably witnessed the expansion of Chera influence into the Mushika country. As one of the major subordinates of the Cheras, the Mushika rulers were required to supply armed contingents for the Cheras (in their battles for the
Cholas The Chola dynasty () was a Tamil dynasty originating from Southern India. At its height, it ruled over the Chola Empire, an expansive maritime empire. The earliest datable references to the Chola are from inscriptions dated to the 3rd cen ...
, against the
Rashtrakutas The Rashtrakuta Empire was a royal Indian polity ruling large parts of the Indian subcontinent between the 6th and 10th centuries. The earliest known Rashtrakuta Indian inscriptions, inscription is a 7th-century copper plate grant detailing th ...
). However, the repeated
Chola The Chola Empire, which is often referred to as the Imperial Cholas, was a medieval thalassocratic empire based in southern India that was ruled by the Chola dynasty, and comprised overseas dominions, protectorates and spheres of influence ...
references (early 11th century AD) to several kings in medieval Kerala hints that the sovereign power of the Chera rulers, at this period, was restricted to central Kerala (the country around capital Mahodayapuram-Kodungallur). The medieval Chera authority perhaps remained nominal in northern and southern Kerala compared with the power that local rulers (such as that of the Mushika in the north and Venad in the south) exercised politically and militarily. However, it is known that the Mushika rulers did provide military contingents for the Cheras (in their battles against the
Cholas The Chola dynasty () was a Tamil dynasty originating from Southern India. At its height, it ruled over the Chola Empire, an expansive maritime empire. The earliest datable references to the Chola are from inscriptions dated to the 3rd cen ...
). While other chieftaincies under the Chera rulers had its local militia called "the Hundred", the Mushika ruler maintained his own "Companions of Honour" called "the Thousand" (a privilege which the Chera ruler at
Mahodayapuram Kodungallur (; formerly also called as Cranganore (anglicised name), Portuguese language, Portuguese: Cranganor; Mahodayapuram, Shingly, Vanchi, Muchiri, Muyirikkode, and Muziris) is a historically significant town situated on the banks of Per ...
had reserved for himself). Inscriptions from the neighboring Alupa state refer to this armed militia (of "the ruler of Kolam").


Origins from ''Mushaka Vamsa Kavya''

''Mushaka Vamsa Kavya'' was composed by poet "Atula" in the court of Mushika ruler Srikantha. The medieval Mushikas rulers professed to be of the Kshatriyas of">nowiki/> Kshatriyas of Hehaya line of Mahismati (the Hehayas being themselves Yadavas). The first Mushika king, consecrated by
Parashurama Parashurama (), also referred to as Rama Jamadagnya, Rama Bhargava and Virarama, is the sixth avatar among the Dashavatara of the preserver god Vishnu in Hinduism. Hindu tradition holds him to be the destroyer of the evil on Earth. According t ...
as the
kshatriya Kshatriya () (from Sanskrit ''kṣatra'', "rule, authority"; also called Rajanya) is one of the four varnas (social orders) of Hindu society and is associated with the warrior aristocracy. The Sanskrit term ''kṣatriyaḥ'' is used in the con ...
king of the country, according to the ''Mushaka Vamsa Kavya,'' was son of a widowed queen from Mahismati. The queen had escaped from the wrath of
Parashurama Parashurama (), also referred to as Rama Jamadagnya, Rama Bhargava and Virarama, is the sixth avatar among the Dashavatara of the preserver god Vishnu in Hinduism. Hindu tradition holds him to be the destroyer of the evil on Earth. According t ...
and fled to the divine Ezhimala Mountain. This king's oungestson, Nandana, succeeded him as the Mushika ruler f the city of Kolam * The minister of the first Ramaghata Mushika was certain "vaishya" by the title "Maha Navika" (the Great Sailor). * Ramaghata Mushika named Jayamani, according to the poem, obtained the aid of a Pandya and regained his throne. Another Mushika named Virchona killed a Pallava royal and married his daughter. * Daughter of Mushika ruler Kunchi Varma was married to the king of Kerala/Chera amed Raghupati Jayaraga Isana Varma Ranamani, the son of Kunchi Varma, battled the Kerala king Jayaraga afterwards. Peace between the two clans was established with the help of certain Goda Keralaketu on of Jayaraga and the Mushika princess After this event, Kerala king Jayaraga entered the Mushika country and visited Mushika capital Kola nd Isana Varma then married a Chola princess These events are sometimes analyzed in view of the growing
Chola The Chola Empire, which is often referred to as the Imperial Cholas, was a medieval thalassocratic empire based in southern India that was ruled by the Chola dynasty, and comprised overseas dominions, protectorates and spheres of influence ...
-
Rashtrakuta The Rashtrakuta Empire was a royal Indian polity ruling large parts of the Indian subcontinent between the 6th and 10th centuries. The earliest known Rashtrakuta inscription is a 7th-century copper plate grant detailing their rule from Manapu ...
rivalry in southern India. * Mushika country under king Validhara was attacked by the Ganga forces from the Mountains. * Mushika prince Valabha, according to the poem, once marched south to assist the Kerala (the Chera) king in resisting a Chola invasion of the Kerala Country t the direction of the then ruler, his uncle Ramaghata Jayamani This prince, after his coronation, also conquered several islands in the ocean ( Laccadives). The
Vaishnava Vaishnavism () ), also called Vishnuism, is one of the major Hindu traditions, that considers Vishnu as the sole supreme being leading all other Hindu deities, that is, '' Mahavishnu''. It is one of the major Hindu denominations along wit ...
Garuda aglebanner was the flag-sign of the medieval Mushika rulers.


Mushika rulers from medieval inscriptions (10th–12th centuries AD)

# Validhara Vikrama Rama (c. 929 AD) – mentioned in the Ezhimala-Narayankannur inscription. # Kantan Karivarman ''alias'' "Ramakuta Muvar" (c. 1020 AD) – mentioned in an Eramam inscription of Chera Bhaskara Ravi Manukuladitya (10th/11th century AD). # "Mushikesvara" Jayamani (c. 1020 AD) – Tiruvadur inscription. # "Ramakuta Muvar" (as a donor to the Tiruvalla temple in Tiruvalla Copper Plates/Huzur Treasury Plates). # Udaya Varma ''alias'' "Ramakuta Muvar " (early 12th century AD) – mentioned in the Kannapuram inscription.


Chola attacks on Mushika kingdom (Kolla-desam)

''Corrections by M. G. S. Narayanan on K. A. Nilakanta Sastri and Elamkulam P. N. Kunjan Pillai are employed.'' * In 1005 AD, i. e., 20 regnal year of emperor
Rajaraja I Rajaraja I ( Middle Tamil: ''Rājarāja Cōḻaṉ''; Classical Sanskrit: ''Rājarāja Śōḷa''; 3 November 947 – January/February 1014), also known as Rajaraja the Great, was a Chola emperor who reigned from 985 to 1014. He was known fo ...
(985–1014 AD), there is a reference (in the Senur inscription) to the defeat of the "haughty" kings at
Kollam Kollam (;), is an ancient seaport and the List of cities and towns in Kerala, fourth largest city in the Indian state of Kerala. Located on the southern tip of the Malabar Coast of the Arabian Sea, the city is on the banks of Ashtamudi Lake ...
, Kolladesam and
Kodungallur Kodungallur (; formerly also called as Cranganore (anglicised name), Portuguese language, Portuguese: Cranganor; Mahodayapuram, Shingly, Vanchi, Muchiri, Muyirikkode, and Muziris) is a historically significant town situated on the banks of Per ...
at the hand of Rajaraja. The "Kolladesam" is identified with the Mushika kingdom in north Kerala. According to scholars, "plunder is emphasised more than conquest n the inscriptionand it is likely that the victories at Kollam in the south, Kodungallur in the center and Kolladesam in the north of Kerala have been primarily the achievement of he Cholanaval forces". * Chola emperor Rajadhiraja (1019–1044–1053/4 AD) is stated to have "confined the undaunted king of
Venad Venad was a medieval kingdom between the Western Ghat mountains of India with its capital at city of Quilon.Noburu Karashmia (ed.), A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014. 143 ...
ackto Che aatu, destroyed the Iramakuta Muvar in anger, and put on a fresh garland of Vanchi flowers after capturing Kantalur Salai nowiki/>Vizhinjam?">Vizhinjam.html" ;"title="nowiki/>Vizhinjam">nowiki/>Vizhinjam?while the strong Villavan [the Chera king] hid himself in terror inside the jungle". The Ramakuta Muvar is not named in the above Chola ''prasasti'' (the above events are dated to around 1018–19 AD). * The presence of Chola army in north Kerala (1020 AD) is confirmed by the Eramam inscription of Chera ruler Bhaskara Ravi Manukuladitya (10th/11th century AD) (which mentions a meeting attended by Rajendra Chola Samaya Senapati in the Chalappuram Temple). The Ramanthali/Ezhimala-Narayankannur inscription (1075 AD) notably mentions Alupa king Kunda Alupa.


Inscriptions


Inscriptions mentioning Mushika rules by name/title


Inscriptions related to Mushika country


Records mentioning Chera rulers from Mushika country


Miscellaneous records


Udaya Varma Kolattiri

An inscription discovered from Kannappuram Temple, found fixed on a platform outside the prakara of the temple, in old Malayalam mentions king "Udaya Varma Ramakuta Muvar". The record give details of land set apart for the expenses of the Kannapuram Temple. The inscription can be attributed to the early years of the 12th century on the basis of script and language. King Udaya Varma of Karippattu palace in Kolattunadu is described as a favourite of the medieval Chera king in traditional Kerala chronicles. He is described as the overlord of the Fort Valapattanam, the medieval Chera king's Palace, the Taliparamba Temple, and the Perinchellur Brahmin village.


References


Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * {{Kerala topics History of Kerala Ancient Tamil Nadu Kingdoms in the Mahabharata Hindu dynasties