Pudicitia ("modesty" or "sexual virtue") was a central concept in ancient Roman sexual ethics. The word is derived from the more general ''pudor'', the sense of shame that regulated an individual's behavior as socially acceptable. ''Pudicitia'' was most often a defining characteristic of women, but men who failed to conform to masculine sexual norms were said to exhibit feminizing ''impudicitia'', sexual shamelessness. The virtue was

personified Personification is the representation of a thing or abstraction as a person, often as an embodiment or incarnation. In the arts, many things are commonly personified, including: places, especially cities, countries, and continents; elements of ...

by the

Roman goddess Roman mythology is the body of myths of ancient Rome as represented in the literature and visual arts of the Romans, and is a form of Roman folklore. "Roman mythology" may also refer to the modern study of these representations, and to the ...

Pudicitia, whose Greek equivalent was Aidos.

As virtue

Bust of a Modest Roman Woman of the Severan Period 193-211 CE at The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York MH

Romans, both men and women, were expected to uphold the virtue of ''pudicitia'', a complex ideal that was explored by many ancient writers, including

Livy Titus Livius (; 59 BC – AD 17), known in English as Livy ( ), was a Roman historian. He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, titled , covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditional founding i ...

Valerius Maximus Valerius Maximus () was a 1st-century Latin writer and author of a collection of historical anecdotes: ' ("Nine books of memorable deeds and sayings", also known as ''De factis dictisque memorabilibus'' or ''Facta et dicta memorabilia''). He worke ...

Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, orator, writer and Academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises tha ...

Tacitus Publius Cornelius Tacitus, known simply as Tacitus ( , ; – ), was a Roman historian and politician. Tacitus is widely regarded as one of the greatest Roman historians by modern scholars. Tacitus’ two major historical works, ''Annals'' ( ...

and

Tertullian Tertullian (; ; 155 – 220 AD) was a prolific Early Christianity, early Christian author from Roman Carthage, Carthage in the Africa (Roman province), Roman province of Africa. He was the first Christian author to produce an extensive co ...

. Livy describes the legendary figure of

Lucretia According to Roman tradition, Lucretia ( /luːˈkriːʃə/ ''loo-KREE-shə'', Classical Latin: �ʊˈkreːtia died ), anglicized as Lucrece, was a noblewoman in ancient Rome. Sextus Tarquinius (Tarquin) raped her. Her subsequent suicide precipi ...

as the epitome of ''pudicitia''. She is loyal to her husband and is modest, despite her incredible beauty. Some say that the story of Lucretia shows that the more virtuous a woman was, the more appealing she was to potential adulterers. ''Pudicitia'' was not only a mental attribute but also physical; a person's appearance was seen as an indicator of their morality. The way a man or woman presented him or herself in public, and the persons they interacted with caused others to pass judgment on their ''pudicitia''. For example, if a woman was seen associating with men other than her husband people would make a negative judgment on her ''pudicitia''. Romans idealized the woman who was ''univira'', a "one-man" woman, married once, even though by the time of Cicero and

Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (12 or 13 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC) was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in Caesar's civil wa ...

divorce Divorce (also known as dissolution of marriage) is the process of terminating a marriage or marital union. Divorce usually entails the canceling or reorganising of the legal duties and responsibilities of marriage, thus dissolving the M ...

was common, the subject of gossip rather than social stigma. Modest self-presentation indicated ''pudicitia''. The opposite of ''pudicitia'' was ''impudicitia'', "shamelessness" or “sexual vice.” An assault on ''pudicitia'' was '' stuprum'', sexual misconduct or "sex crime." Romans associated the loss of ''pudicitia'' with chaos and loss of control. In Cicero's oration against Verres, he discusses many of the governor's transgressions including sexual misconduct with both men and women. In the Imperial age,

Augustus Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian (), was the founder of the Roman Empire, who reigned as the first Roman emperor from 27 BC until his death in A ...

enacted a program of moral legislation to encourage ''pudicitia''.

The goddess

According to

, there were two temples of Pudicitia in Rome, the Temple of Pudicitia Patricia and the Temple of Pudicitia Plebeia. The original one was for women of the patrician class only, but when

Verginia Verginia, or Virginia (c. 465 BC449 BC), was the subject of an ancient Rome, ancient Roman story recounted in Roman historian Livy's text ''Ab Urbe Condita Libri (Livy), Ab Urbe Condita''. Upon a threat to her virtue, Verginia was killed by her ...

was excluded on account of marrying a

plebeian In ancient Rome, the plebeians or plebs were the general body of free Roman citizens who were not patricians, as determined by the census, or in other words "commoners". Both classes were hereditary. Etymology The precise origins of the gro ...

consul Consul (abbrev. ''cos.''; Latin plural ''consules'') was the title of one of the two chief magistrates of the Roman Republic, and subsequently also an important title under the Roman Empire. The title was used in other European city-states thro ...

, she and a group of plebeian matrons founded an altar of Pudicitia for women of the

class as well. Livy states that the plebeian shrine of Pudicitia eventually fell into disuse after its sacred character had been abused. According to

Juvenal Decimus Junius Juvenalis (), known in English as Juvenal ( ; 55–128), was a Roman poet. He is the author of the '' Satires'', a collection of satirical poems. The details of Juvenal's life are unclear, but references in his works to people f ...

, at the end of the Iron Age humanity had grown so cruel and greedy that Pudicitia along with her sister

Astraea In ancient Greek religion and mythology, Astraea (; ), also spelled Astrea or Astria, is a daughter of Astraeus and Eos. She is the virgin goddess of justice, innocence, purity, and precision. She is closely associated with the Greek goddess of ...

, goddess of justice, abandoned the earth and returned to the sky, leaving humans to deal with their evil unguided.

, '' Satires'
6.10–20
/ref>

As virtue

The goddess

References

Further reading