Michael Psellos or Psellus (, ) was a
Byzantine Greek
Medieval Greek (also known as Middle Greek, Byzantine Greek, or Romaic; Greek: ) is the stage of the Greek language between the end of classical antiquity in the 5th–6th centuries and the end of the Middle Ages, conventionally dated to the F ...
monk, savant, writer, philosopher, imperial courtier, historian and music theorist. He was born in 1017 or 1018, and is believed to have died in 1078, although it has also been maintained that he remained alive until 1096. He served as a high ranking courtier and advisor to several
Byzantine emperors
The foundation of Constantinople in 330 AD marks the conventional start of the Eastern Roman Empire, which Fall of Constantinople, fell to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 AD. Only the emperors who were recognized as legitimate rulers and exercised s ...
and was instrumental in the re-positioning of power of those emperors. Psellos has made lasting contributions to Byzantine culture by advocating for the revival of Byzantine
classical studies
Classics, also classical studies or Ancient Greek and Roman studies, is the study of classical antiquity. In the Western world, ''classics'' traditionally refers to the study of Ancient Greek and Roman literature and their original languages ...
, which would later influence the
Italian Renaissance
The Italian Renaissance ( ) was a period in History of Italy, Italian history between the 14th and 16th centuries. The period is known for the initial development of the broader Renaissance culture that spread across Western Europe and marked t ...
, as well as by interpreting
Homeric
Homer (; , ; possibly born ) was an Ancient Greek poet who is credited as the author of the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'', two epic poems that are foundational works of ancient Greek literature. Despite doubts about his authorship, Homer is ...
literature and
Platonic philosophy
Platonism is the philosophy of Plato and philosophical systems closely derived from it, though contemporary Platonists do not necessarily accept all doctrines of Plato. Platonism has had a profound effect on Western thought. At the most fundame ...
as precursors and integral components of
Christian doctrine
Christian theology is the theology – the systematic study of the divine and religion – of Christianity, Christian belief and practice. It concentrates primarily upon the texts of the Old Testament and of the New Testament, as well as on Ch ...
.
His texts combined
theology
Theology is the study of religious belief from a Religion, religious perspective, with a focus on the nature of divinity. It is taught as an Discipline (academia), academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itse ...
, philosophy, and psychology. Among his most famous works are his ''Commentary on Plato’s Teachings on the Origin of the Soul'', and the ''Chronographia'', a series of biographies from emperor
Basil II
Basil II Porphyrogenitus (; 958 – 15 December 1025), nicknamed the Bulgar Slayer (, ), was the senior Byzantine emperor from 976 to 1025. He and his brother Constantine VIII were crowned before their father Romanos II died in 963, but t ...
to
Nikephoros III, which serves as a valuable source on the history of the 11th century
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Having survived History of the Roman Empire, the events that caused the ...
.
Biography and political career
The main sources of information about Psellos' life are his works, which contain extensive autobiographical passages. Michael Psellos was probably born in
Constantinople
Constantinople (#Names of Constantinople, see other names) was a historical city located on the Bosporus that served as the capital of the Roman Empire, Roman, Byzantine Empire, Byzantine, Latin Empire, Latin, and Ottoman Empire, Ottoman empire ...
. His family hailed from
Nicomedia
Nicomedia (; , ''Nikomedeia''; modern İzmit) was an ancient Greece, ancient Greek city located in what is now Turkey. In 286, Nicomedia became the eastern and most senior capital city of the Roman Empire (chosen by the emperor Diocletian who rul ...
and, according to his own testimony, counted members of the consular and patrician elite among its ancestors. His baptismal name was Constantine; Michael was the monastic name he chose when he entered a monastery later in life. "Psellos" ('the stammerer') probably was a personal by-name referring to a speech defect.
Michael Psellos was educated in Constantinople. At around the age of ten, he was sent to work outside the capital as a secretary of a provincial judge, to help his family raise the dowry for his sister. When his sister died, he gave up that position and returned to Constantinople to resume his studies. While studying under
John Mauropus, he met the later Patriarchs
Constantine Leichoudes and
John Xiphilinos, and the later emperor
Constantine X Doukas. For some time, he worked in the provinces again, now a judge. Some time before 1042 he returned again to Constantinople, where he got a junior position at court as a secretary () in the imperial chancellery and began a rapid ascent at court. He became an influential political advisor to emperor
Constantine IX Monomachos
Constantine IX Monomachos (; 980/ 1000
– 11 January 1055) reigned as Byzantine emperor from June 1042 to January 1055. Empress Zoë Porphyrogenita chose him as a husband and co-emperor in 1042, although he had been exiled for conspiring agai ...
(reigned 1042–1055) and became the leading professor at the
University of Constantinople, bearing the honorary title of "Chief of the Philosophers" ( ''hypatos tōn philosophōn''). Despite his eminence and prowess in learning, his knowledge of
Latin
Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...
was cloudy enough for him to confuse
Cicero
Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, orator, writer and Academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises tha ...
with
Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar (12 or 13 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC) was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war. He ...
. This is cited as a prime example of how the
Eastern Roman Empire
The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Having survived the events that caused the fall of the Western Roman E ...
had lost nearly all of its connections to its Roman roots by the High Middle Ages.
Towards the end of Monomachos' reign, Psellos found himself under political pressure for some reason and decided to leave court, entering the
Olympus monastery on
Mount Olympus
Mount Olympus (, , ) is an extensive massif near the Thermaic Gulf of the Aegean Sea, located on the border between Thessaly and Macedonia (Greece), Macedonia, between the regional units of Larissa (regional unit), Larissa and Pieria (regional ...
in
Bithynia
Bithynia (; ) was an ancient region, kingdom and Roman province in the northwest of Asia Minor (present-day Turkey), adjoining the Sea of Marmara, the Bosporus, and the Black Sea. It bordered Mysia to the southwest, Paphlagonia to the northeast a ...
in 1054. After Monomachos' death he was recalled to court by his successor, Empress
Theodora (reigned 1055–1056). Throughout the following years, he remained active in politics, serving as a high-ranking political advisor to successive emperors. He played a decisive political role in the transition of power from
Michael VI to
Isaac I Komnenos
Isaac I Komnenos or Comnenus (; – 1 June 1060) was Byzantine emperor from 1057 to 1059, the first reigning member of the Komnenian dynasty.
The son of the general Manuel Erotikos Komnenos, he was orphaned at an early age, and w ...
in 1057; then from Isaac Komnenos to
Constantine X Doukas (1059), then again from
Romanos IV Diogenes to
Michael VII Doukas
Michael VII Doukas or Ducas (), nicknamed Parapinakes (, , a reference to the devaluation of the Byzantine currency under his rule), was the senior Byzantine emperor from 1071 to 1078. He was known as incompetent as an emperor and reliant on ...
(1071). As Psellos had served as Michael's teacher during the reign of Michael's father Constantine, and as he had played an important role in helping Michael gain power against his adversary and stepfather Romanos, Psellos probably entertained hopes of an even more influential position as a teacher and advisor under him. Michael seems to have been less inclined towards protecting Psellos and after the mid-1070s there is no more information about any role played by Psellos at court. As his autobiographic accounts cease at this point, there is little reliable information about his later years. Some scholars believe that Psellos had to retreat into a monastery again at some time during the 1070s.
[Perikles P. Joannou: "Psellos et le monastère *". ''Byzantinische Zeitschrift'' 44: 283–290.] Following a remark by Psellos' fellow historian
Joannes Zonaras, it is believed by most scholars that Psellos died soon after the fall of Michael VII in 1078, although some scholars have also proposed later dates.
[Herbert Hunger: ''Die hochsprachliche profane Literatur der Byzantiner.'' 2 vols. München 1978.][Ioannes Polemis: "When did Psellos die?" ''Byzantinische Zeitschrift'' 58: 73–76.] What is known is that Theophylaktos of Bulgaria wrote a letter to Psellos's brother comforting him on the death of his brother saying that, "Your brother has not died, but has departed to
God
In monotheistic belief systems, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator, and principal object of faith. In polytheistic belief systems, a god is "a spirit or being believed to have created, or for controlling some part of the un ...
released of both a painful life and disease".
[P. Gautier, Theophylacte d'Achrida. Lettres. Corpus Fontium Historiae Byzantinae. Series Thessalonicensis 16.2. Thessalonica: Association for Byzantine Research, 1986. Letter 132]
''Chronographia''

The ''Chronographia'' (), a history of the Byzantine emperors during the 100 years leading up to Psellos' own time, is probably Psellos' best known and most accessible work. It covers the reigns of 14 emperors and empresses, beginning with the almost 50-year-long reign of
Basil II, the "Bulgar-Slayer" (976–1025), and ending some time during the reign of
Michael VII Doukas
Michael VII Doukas or Ducas (), nicknamed Parapinakes (, , a reference to the devaluation of the Byzantine currency under his rule), was the senior Byzantine emperor from 1071 to 1078. He was known as incompetent as an emperor and reliant on ...
(1071–1078). It is structured mainly as a series of biographies. Unlike most other historiographical works of the period, it emphasizes the description of characters rather than details of political and military events. It also includes extensive autobiographical elements about Psellos' political and intellectual development, and it gives far greater weight to those periods when Psellos was active in politics, especially the reign of Constantine IX, giving the whole work almost the character of a political memoir. It is believed to have been written in two parts. The first covers the emperors up to
Isaac I Komnenos
Isaac I Komnenos or Comnenus (; – 1 June 1060) was Byzantine emperor from 1057 to 1059, the first reigning member of the Komnenian dynasty.
The son of the general Manuel Erotikos Komnenos, he was orphaned at an early age, and w ...
. The second, which has a much more strongly apologetic tone, is in large parts an
encomium
''Encomium'' (: ''encomia'') is a Latin word deriving from the Ancient Greek ''enkomion'' (), meaning "the praise of a person or thing." Another Latin equivalent is '' laudatio'', a speech in praise of someone or something.
Originally was the ...
on Psellus' protectors, the emperors of the Doukas dynasty.
Byzantinist
Byzantine studies is an interdisciplinary branch of the humanities that addresses the history, culture, demography, dress, religion/theology, art, literature/epigraphy, music
Music is the arrangement of sound to create some combination ...
historian
Judith Herrin said: "This book by Michael Psellus is so fascinating that if you only read one book about Byzantium, by a Byzantine, that would be the one I’d choose".
Other works
Psellos left many other writings:
#"Historia syntomos", a shorter, didactic historical text in the form of a world chronicle.
#A large number of scientific, philosophical and religious treatises. He wrote or compiled an important work on philosophy, the ''De omnifaria doctrina.'' Other works deal with topics such as
astronomy
Astronomy is a natural science that studies celestial objects and the phenomena that occur in the cosmos. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry in order to explain their origin and their overall evolution. Objects of interest includ ...
,
medicine
Medicine is the science and Praxis (process), practice of caring for patients, managing the Medical diagnosis, diagnosis, prognosis, Preventive medicine, prevention, therapy, treatment, Palliative care, palliation of their injury or disease, ...
,
music
Music is the arrangement of sound to create some combination of Musical form, form, harmony, melody, rhythm, or otherwise Musical expression, expressive content. Music is generally agreed to be a cultural universal that is present in all hum ...
,
jurisprudence
Jurisprudence, also known as theory of law or philosophy of law, is the examination in a general perspective of what law is and what it ought to be. It investigates issues such as the definition of law; legal validity; legal norms and values ...
,
physics
Physics is the scientific study of matter, its Elementary particle, fundamental constituents, its motion and behavior through space and time, and the related entities of energy and force. "Physical science is that department of knowledge whi ...
, and
laography.
#''
De operatione dæmonum (On the Operation of Demons)'', which offered a
demonic taxonomy as part of an anti-
Manichaean
Manichaeism (; in ; ) is an endangered former major world religion currently only practiced in China around Cao'an,R. van den Broek, Wouter J. Hanegraaff ''Gnosis and Hermeticism from Antiquity to Modern Times''. SUNY Press, 1998 p. 37 found ...
dialogue. He wrote a treatise on alchemy,
theurgy
Theurgy (; from the Greek θεουργία ), also known as divine magic, is one of two major branches of the magical arts, Pierre A. Riffard, ''Dictionnaire de l'ésotérisme'', Paris: Payot, 1983, 340. the other being practical magic or thau ...
(summoning spirits) despite the study being forbidden by the church.
# Various didactic poems on topics such as
grammar
In linguistics, grammar is the set of rules for how a natural language is structured, as demonstrated by its speakers or writers. Grammar rules may concern the use of clauses, phrases, and words. The term may also refer to the study of such rul ...
and
rhetorics.
# Three ''Epitaphioi'' or funeral orations over the patriarchs
Michael Keroularios,
Constantine III Leichoudes and
John Xiphilinos.
#A funeral oration for his mother, including a large amount of autobiographic information.
#Several
panegyric
A panegyric ( or ) is a formal public speech or written verse, delivered in high praise of a person or thing. The original panegyrics were speeches delivered at public events in ancient Athens.
Etymology
The word originated as a compound of - ' ...
s, persuasive speeches (including works against the
Bogomils
Bogomilism (; ; sh-Latn-Cyrl, separator=" / ", bogumilstvo, богумилство) was a Christian neo-Gnostic, dualist sect founded in the First Bulgarian Empire by the priest Bogomil during the reign of Tsar Peter I in the 10th century. I ...
and
Euchites) and speeches addressed to his patron emperors at court.
#Several hundred personal letters.
#
Rhetoric
Rhetoric is the art of persuasion. It is one of the three ancient arts of discourse ( trivium) along with grammar and logic/ dialectic. As an academic discipline within the humanities, rhetoric aims to study the techniques that speakers or w ...
al exercises and essays on set themes.
# Occasional, satirical, and epigrammatic verse.
Personality
Psellos was universally educated and had a reputation for being one of the most learned men of his time. He prided himself on having single-handedly reintroduced to Byzantine scholarship a serious study of ancient philosophy, especially of
Plato
Plato ( ; Greek language, Greek: , ; born BC, died 348/347 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher of the Classical Greece, Classical period who is considered a foundational thinker in Western philosophy and an innovator of the writte ...
. His predilection for Plato and other pagan (often
Neoplatonic
Neoplatonism is a version of Platonic philosophy that emerged in the 3rd century AD against the background of Hellenistic philosophy and religion. The term does not encapsulate a set of ideas as much as a series of thinkers. Among the common id ...
) philosophers led to doubts about the orthodoxy of his faith among some of his contemporaries, and at one point he was forced to make a public profession of faith in his defense. He also prided himself on being a master of rhetoric, combining the wisdom of the philosopher and the persuasiveness of the rhetorician. This made him the model of a political leader and advisor. Among modern commentators, Psellos' penchant for long autobiographical digressions in his works has earned him accusations of vanity and ambition. At the same time, his political career and the contents of his ''Chronographia'' have led commentators to characterize him as obsequious and opportunistic, because of his ostensibly uncritical stance towards some of the emperors and because of the many shifts in his political loyalty over the course of his life . However, other commentators argue that there is a powerful ironic undercurrent running through his work, especially the ''Chronographia'', transmitting highly critical and subversive messages about the emperors portrayed,
[Efthymia Pietsch: ''Die "Chronographia" des Michael Psellos: Kaisergeschichte, Autobiographie und Apologie''. Wiesbaden 2005.] or even about Byzantine
Christian
A Christian () is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, a Monotheism, monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus in Christianity, Jesus Christ. Christians form the largest religious community in the wo ...
beliefs and morality at large.
Anthony Kaldellis
Anthony Kaldellis ( ; born 29 November 1971) is a Greek-American historian and Byzantinist who is a professor of classics at the University of Chicago. He is a specialist in Greek historiography, Plato, and Byzantine studies.
As the author of mon ...
: ''The argument of Psellos' Chronographia.'' Boston 1999.
As mentioned above, serious questions were raised during Psellos' lifetime concerning his religious beliefs. For example, according to Byzantinist
Anthony Kaldellis
Anthony Kaldellis ( ; born 29 November 1971) is a Greek-American historian and Byzantinist who is a professor of classics at the University of Chicago. He is a specialist in Greek historiography, Plato, and Byzantine studies.
As the author of mon ...
, "In 1054 he
selloswas accused by his erstwhile friend, the future Patriarch John Xiphilinos, of forsaking Christ to follow Plato."
Even stronger doubts arose concerning Psellos' student,
John Italos, who succeeded Psellos as Chief of the Philosophers. Italos was publicly accused of teaching such "Hellenizing" ideas as
metempsychosis
In philosophy and theology, metempsychosis () is the transmigration of the soul, especially its reincarnation after death. The term is derived from ancient Greek philosophy, and has been recontextualized by modern philosophers such as Arthur Sc ...
and the
eternity of the world
The eternity of the world is the question, in pre-scientific philosophy, of whether the world has a beginning in time or has existed for eternity. It was a concern for ancient philosophers as well as theologians and philosophers of the 13th ce ...
. Italos faced such accusations twice, and both times he confessed and recanted.
[Lowell Clucas: "The Trial of John Italos and the Crisis of Intellectual Values in Byzantium in the Eleventh Century", München 1981]
Pseudo-Psellos
It was once thought that there was another Byzantine writer of the same name, Michael Psellos the Elder (now also called Pseudo-Psellos), who lived on the island of
Andros
Andros (, ) is the northernmost island of the Greece, Greek Cyclades archipelago, about southeast of Euboea, and about north of Tinos. It is nearly long, and its greatest breadth is . It is for the most part mountainous, with many fruitful and ...
in the 9th century, and who was a pupil of
Photius
Photius I of Constantinople (, ''Phōtios''; 815 – 6 February 893), also spelled ''Photius''Fr. Justin Taylor, essay "Canon Law in the Age of the Fathers" (published in Jordan Hite, T.O.R., and Daniel J. Ward, O.S.B., "Readings, Cases, Mate ...
and teacher of emperor
Leo VI the Wise
Leo VI, also known as Leo the Wise (; 19 September 866 – 11 May 912), was Byzantine Emperor from 886 to 912. The second ruler of the Macedonian dynasty (although his parentage is unclear), he was very well read, leading to his epithet. During ...
. Michael Psellos was also called "the younger" by some authors. This belief was based on an entry in a medieval chronicle, the , which mentions the name in that context. It is now believed that the inclusion of the name Psellos in this chronicle was the mistake of an ignorant copyist at a later time, and that no "Michael Psellos the elder" existed.
[Paul Lemerle: ''Le premier humanisme byzantin: Notes et remarques sur enseignement et culture à Byzance des origines au Xe siècle.'' Paris 1971. (ch. 6)] The term "Pseudo-Psellos" is also used in modern scholarship to describe the authorship of several later works that are believed to have been falsely ascribed to Psellos in Byzantine times.
References in literature
In the gloss of
Samuel Taylor Coleridge
Samuel Taylor Coleridge ( ; 21 October 177225 July 1834) was an English poet, literary critic, philosopher, and theologian who was a founder of the Romantic Movement in England and a member of the Lake Poets with his friend William Wordsworth ...
's poem "
The Rime of the Ancient Mariner
''The Rime of the Ancient Mariner'' (originally ''The Rime of the Ancyent Marinere''), written by English poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge in 1797–98 and published in 1798 in the first edition of '' Lyrical Ballads'', is a poem that recounts th ...
", there is a reference to "the Platonic Constantinopolitan, Michael Psellus" as an authority on "the invisible inhabitants of this planet, neither departed souls nor angels".
The British poet
Christopher Middleton includes a poem about Psellus in his 1986 collection, ''
Two Horse Wagon Going By'', "Mezzomephistophelean Scholion".
Psellos appears also in
Tim Severin
Timothy Severin (25 September 1940 – 18 December 2020) was a British explorer, historian, and writer. Severin was noted for his work in retracing the legendary journeys of historical figures. Severin was awarded both the Founder's Medal ...
's novel ''Viking: King's Man'', the final piece of the ''Viking trilogy''.
Editions
*
*''Chronographie ou histoire d'un siècle de Byzance (976–1077).'' Ed. Émile Renauld. 2 vols. Paris 1926/28.
tandard modern edition
*''Imperatori di Bisanzio (Cronografia).'' Ed. Salvatore Impellizzeri. 2 vols. Vicenza 1984.
ew critical edition and Italian translation.*''Chronographia'', ed. E. R. A. Sewter. London 1953. English translation
Full online text*''Chronographia'', ed. Vrasidas Karalis. 2 vols. Athen 1992/96
odern Greek translation
*''Vidas de los emperadores des Bizancio (Cronografia)''. Ed. Juan Signes Codoñer. Madrid 2005
panish translation
*''Autobiografia (Encomio per la madre''. Ed. Ugo Criscuolo. Naples 1989.
*''De omnifaria doctrina.''
�ιδασκαλία παντοδαπήEd. Leendert G. Westerink. Utrecht 1948.
*''De operatione daemonum.'' Ed.
Jean-François Boissonade. Nürnberg 1838, reprint Amsterdam 1964.
*''De operatione daemonum.'' Tr. Marcus Collision. Sydney 1843
Full online text*'"Éloge inédit du lecteur Jean Kroustoulas." Ed. Paul Gautier. ''Rivista di studi bizantini e neoellenici'', n.s. 17–19 (27–29), 1980–1982: 119–147.
*''Epistola a Giovanni Xifilino.'' Ed. Ugo Criscuolo. Naples 1990.
*''Epistola a Michele Kerulario.'' Ed. Ugo Criscuolo. Naples 1990.
*''Historia Syntomos''. Ed. Willem J. Aerts. Berlin 1990.
*''Orationes hagiographicae.'' Ed. Elizabeth A. Fisher. Stuttgart/Leipzig 1994.
*''Orationes panegyricae.'' Ed. George T. Dennis. Stuttgart/Leipzig 1994.
*''Oratoria minora''. Ed. Antony R. Littlewood. Leipzig 1984.
*''Orazione in memoria di Constantino Lichudi.'' Ed. Ugo Criscuolo. Messina 1983.
*''Philosophica minora I.'' Ed. John M. Duffy. Stuttgart/Leipzig 1992.
*''Philosophica minora II.'' Ed. Dominic J. O'Meara. Leipzig 1989.
*''Poemata''. Ed. Leendert G. Westerink. Stuttgart/Leipzig 1992.
*''Scripta minora magnam partem adhuc inedita.'' 2 vols. Ed. Eduard Kurtz, Franz Drexl. Milan 1936/41.
*''Essays on Euripides and George of Pisidia and on Heliodorus and Achilles Tatius.'' Ed. Andrew R. Dyck. Wien 1989.
*''Theologica I.'' Ed. Paul Gautier. Leipzig 1989.
*''Theologica II.'' Ed. Leendert G. Westerink, John M. Duffy. München/Leipzig 2002.
See also
*
Byzantine Aristotelianism
References
Further reading
*Bardi, Alberto. "Michael Psellos on the Sizes of the Sun, the Moon, and the Earth: A Note on De omnifaria doctrina 127 (Westerink)". ''Anekdota Byzantina: Studien zur byzantinischen Geschichte und Kultur. Festschrift für Albrecht Berger anlässlich seines 65. Geburtstags'', edited by Isabel Grimm-Stadelmann, Alexander Riehle, Raimondo Tocci and Martin Marko Vučetić, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2023, pp. 21–28.
*A. Kaldellis, Anthony Kaldellis: The argument of Psellos' Chronographia, Boston 1999.
*F. Lauritzen, Depiction of Character in the Chronographia of Michael Psellos, Turnhout 2013.
*S. Papaioannou, Michael Psellos: Rhetoric and Authorship in Byzantium, Cambridge 2013.
*E. Pietsch: Die "Chronographia" des Michael Psellos: Kaisergeschichte, Autobiographie und Apologie
he ‘Chronographia’ of Michael Psellos: imperial history, autobiography and apologia Wiesbaden 2005.
*
D. R. Reinsch,
Wer waren die Leser und Hörer der Chronographia des Michael Psellos? ho were the readers and listeners of the Chronographia of Michael Psellos? ''Зборник радова Византолошког института'' 50, 2013, pp. 389-398.
*D. Walter,
Michael Psellos – Christliche Philosophie in Byzanz. Mittelalterliche Philosophie im Verhältnis zu Antike und Spätantike'
ichael Psellos - Christian Philosophy in Byzantium. Medieval philosophy in relation to antiquity and late antiquity De Gruyter, Berlin, Boston 2017,
External links
Greek Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Graeca with analytical indexes
{{DEFAULTSORT:Psellos, Michael
1010s births
11th-century deaths
11th-century Byzantine physicians
11th-century Byzantine historians
11th-century Byzantine writers
Byzantine poets
Christian philosophers
Christian poets
11th-century Byzantine monks
Year of death uncertain
Byzantine letter writers
11th-century poets
11th-century Greek mathematicians
11th-century Byzantine scientists
Byzantine astronomers
11th-century astronomers
11th-century jurists
11th-century Greek philosophers
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