Prussian Junker

The Junkers ( ; ) were members of the landed nobility in Prussia. They owned great estates that were maintained and worked by peasants with few rights. These estates often lay in the countryside outside of major cities or towns. They were an important factor in Prussian and, after 1871, German military, political and diplomatic leadership. The most famous Junker was Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. Bismarck held power in Germany from 1871 to 1890 as Chancellor of the German Empire. He was removed from power by Kaiser Wilhelm II.

Many Junkers lived in the eastern provinces that were annexed by either Poland or the Soviet Union after World War II. Junkers fled or were expelled alongside other German-speaking populations by the incoming Polish and Soviet administrations, and their lands were confiscated. In western and southern Germany, the land was often owned by small independent farmers or a mixture of small farmers and estate owners, and this system was often contrasted with the dominance of the large estate owners of the east. Before World War II, the dividing line was often drawn at the river Elbe which was also roughly the western boundary of Slavic settlement by the Wends in the so-called Germania Slavica prior to ''Ostsiedlung''. The term for the junker dominated East was thus '' Ostelbien'' or East Elbia. They played a prominent role in repressing the liberal movement in Germany, and were often described as reactionary.

Origins

''Junker'' is derived from Middle High German ''Juncherre'', meaning "young nobleman"Duden; Meaning of Junker, in German

/ref> or otherwise "young lord" (derivation of ''jung'' and ''Herr''), and originally was the title of members of the higher '' edelfrei'' ( immediate) nobility without or before the accolade. It evolved to a general denotation of a young or lesser noble, often poor and politically insignificant, understood as "country squire" (cf. Martin Luther's disguise as "Junker Jörg" at the Wartburg; he would later mock King Henry VIII of England as "Juncker Heintz"). As part of the nobility, many Junker families only had prepositions such as ''von'' or '' zu'' before their family names without further ranks. The abbreviation of the title is Jkr., most often placed before the given name and titles, for example: Jkr. Heinrich von Hohenberg. The female equivalent ''Junkfrau'' (Jkfr.) was used only sporadically. In some cases, the honorific Jkr. was also used for ''Freiherren'' (Barons) and ''Grafen'' (Counts).

A good number of poorer Junkers took up careers as soldiers (''Fahnenjunker''), mercenaries, and officials (''Hofjunker'', ''Kammerjunker'') at the court of territorial princes. These families were mostly part of the German medieval ''Uradel'' and had carried on the colonisation and Christianisation of the northeastern European territories during the ''Ostsiedlung''. Over the centuries, they had become influential commanders and landowners, especially in the lands east of the Elbe River in the Kingdom of Prussia.

As landed aristocrats, the Junkers owned most of the arable land in Prussia. Being the bulwark of the ruling House of Hohenzollern, the Junkers controlled the Prussian Army, leading in political influence and social status, and owning immense estates worked by tenants. These were located especially in the north-eastern half of Germany (i.e. the Prussian provinces of Brandenburg, Pomerania, Silesia, West Prussia, East Prussia, and Posen). This was in contrast to the predominantly Catholic southern states such as the Kingdom of Bavaria or the Grand Duchy of Baden, where land was owned by small farms, or the mixed agriculture of the western states like the Grand Duchy of Hesse or even the Prussian Rhine and Westphalian provinces.

Junkers formed a tightly knit elite. Their challenge was how to retain their dominance in an emerging modern state with a growing middle and working class.

Modern influences

The Junkers held a virtual monopoly on all agriculture in the part of the German Reich lying east of the River Elbe. Since the Junker estates were necessarily inherited by the eldest son alone, younger sons, all well-educated and with a sense of noble ancestry, turned to the civil and military services, and dominated all higher civil offices, as well as the officer corps. Around 1900 they modernised their farming operations to increase productivity. They sold off less productive land, invested more heavily in new breeds of cattle and pigs, used new fertilisers, increased grain production, and improved productivity per worker. Their political influence achieved the imposition of high tariffs that reduced competition from U.S. grain and meat.

During World War I, Irish nationalist MP Tom Kettle compared the Anglo-Irish landlord class to the Prussian Junkers, saying, "England goes to fight for liberty in Europe and for junkerdom in Ireland."

Their political influence extended from the German Empire of 1871–1918 through the Weimar Republic of 1919–1933. It was said that "if Prussia ruled Germany, the Junkers ruled Prussia, and through it the Empire itself". A policy known as '' Osthilfe'' ("Help for the East") granted Junkers 500,000,000 marks in subsidies to help pay for certain debts and to improve equipment. Junkers continued to demand and receive more and more subsidies, which gave them more money in their pockets, thus resulting in political power. Junkers exploited a monopoly on grain by storing it to drive up the price. As more money was profited, they were able to control political offices. Junkers were able to force people to continue paying more money for their product, while keeping who they wanted in office. Through the controlling of politics behind a veil, Junkers were able to influence politicians to create a law that prohibited collecting of debts from agrarians, thus pocketing even more money and strengthening their power.

Supporting monarchism and military traditions, Junkers were seen as reactionary, anti-democratic, and protectionist by liberals and Socialists, as they had sided with the conservative monarchist forces during the Revolution of 1848. Their political interests were served by the German Conservative Party in the Reichstag and the extraparliamentary Agriculturists' League (''Bund der Landwirte''). This political class held tremendous power over industrial classes and government alike, especially through the Prussian three-class franchise. When German chancellor Leo von Caprivi in the 1890s reduced the protective duties on imports of grain, these landed magnates demanded and obtained his dismissal; and in 1902, they brought about a restoration of such duties on foodstuffs as would keep the prices of their own products at a high level.

"Junker" acquired its current and often pejorative sense during the 19th-century disputes over the domestic policies of the German Empire. The term was used by sociologists such as Max Weber and was even adopted by members of the landed class themselves. Chancellor Otto von Bismarck was a noted Junker, though his family hailed from the Altmark region west of the Elbe. After World War I many Prussian agriculturists gathered in the national conservative German National People's Party (DNVP). The term was also applied to Reich President Paul von Hindenburg, lord of Neudeck in West Prussia, and to the " camarilla" around him urging the appointment of Adolf Hitler as Chancellor of Germany, personified by men like Hindenburg's son Oskar and his West Prussian "neighbour" Elard von Oldenburg-Januschau, who played a vital role in the ''Osthilfe'' scandal of 1932/33.

Many World War II field marshals were also members of the Junkers, most notably Gerd von Rundstedt, Fedor von Bock, and Erich von Manstein. Many Junkers used forced labourers from Poland and the Soviet Union. However, Helmuth James Graf von Moltke formed the Kreisau Circle as part of the resistance to Nazi rule, and as World War II turned against Nazi Germany, several senior Junkers in the ''Wehrmacht'' participated in Colonel Claus von Stauffenberg's assassination attempt of 20 July 1944. Fifty-eight of them either were executed when the plot failed, among them Erwin von Witzleben and Heinrich Graf von Lehndorff-Steinort, or committed suicide like Henning von Tresckow. During the advance of the Red Army in the closing months of the war and subsequently, most Junkers had to flee from the eastern territories that were turned over to the re-established Republic of Poland with the implementation of the Oder–Neisse line according to the Potsdam Agreement.

''Bodenreform''

After World War II, during the communist ''Bodenreform'' (land reform) of September 1945 in the Soviet Occupation Zone, later East Germany, all private property exceeding an area of was expropriated, and then predominantly allocated to 'New Farmers' on condition that they continued farming them. As most of these large estates, especially in Brandenburg and Western Pomerania, had belonged to Junkers, the Socialist Unity Party of Germany promoted their plans with East German President Wilhelm Pieck's slogan ''Junkerland in Bauernhand!'' ("Junker land into farmer's hand!"). The former owners were accused of war crimes and involvement in the Nazi regime by the Soviet Military Administration and the SED, with many of them being arrested, brutally beaten and interned in NKVD special camps (''Speziallager''), while their property was plundered and the manor houses demolished. Some were executed. Many women were raped. From 1952 these individual farms were pressured by a variety of means to join together as collectives and incorporated into '' Landwirtschaftliche Produktionsgenossenschaften'' ("agricultural production comradeships", LPG) or nationalised as '' Volkseigene Güter'' ("publicly owned estates", VEG).

After German reunification, some Junkers tried to regain their former estates through civil lawsuits, but the German courts have upheld the land reforms and rebuffed claims to full compensation, confirming the legal validity of the terms within the Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany (Two Plus Four Agreement) (and incorporated into the Basic Law of the Federal Republic), by which expropriations of land under Soviet occupation were irreversible. The last decisive case was the unsuccessful lawsuit of Prince Ernst August of Hanover in September 2006, when the Federal Administrative Court decided that the prince had no right to compensation for the disseized estates of the House of Hanover around Blankenburg Castle in Saxony-Anhalt. Other families, however, have quietly purchased or leased back their ancestral homes from the current owners (often the German federal government in its role as trustee). A petition for official rehabilitation of the ousted landowners was rejected by the German Bundestag in 2008.

Notable Junkers

* Otto von Bismarck
* Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher
* Manfred von Richthofen
* Paul von Hindenburg
* Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben
* Christoph II von Dohna
* Friedrich Wilhelm von Seydlitz
* Alfred von Waldersee
* Alfred von Schlieffen
* Werner von Siemens
* Leonhard Graf von Blumenthal
* Josias von Heeringen
* Heinrich von Kleist
* Joseph von Eichendorff
* Ferdinand von Schill
* Hans Joachim von Zieten
* Ludwig Yorck von Wartenburg
* Heinrich Friedrich Karl vom und zum Stein
* Helmuth von Moltke the Elder
* Helmuth von Moltke the Younger
* Gustav von Wangenheim
* Alexander von Linsingen
* Franz von Hipper
* Karl-Jesko von Puttkamer
* Kurt Freiherr von Hammerstein-Equord
* Claus von Stauffenberg
* Heinrich Graf von Einsiedel
* Günther von Reibnitz
* Alfred von Tirpitz
* Erich von Falkenhayn
* August von Mackensen
* Henning von Tresckow
* Walter von Brauchitsch
* Fedor von Bock
* Oskar von Hindenburg
* Wilhelm von Leeb
* Erich von Manstein
* Hans-Jürgen von Arnim
* Hermann von Eichhorn
* Otto Liman von Sanders
* Helmuth James Graf von Moltke
* Wolfram von Richthofen
* Peter Yorck von Wartenburg
* Marion von Dönhoff
* Elard von Oldenburg-Januschau
* Veruschka von Lehndorff
* Paul Emil von Lettow-Vorbeck
* Kurt von Schleicher
* Hans von Seeckt
* Bernhard von Bülow
* Alexander von Kluck
* Werner von Blomberg
* Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk
* Eberhard von Mackensen
* Wernher von Braun
* Walther von Reichenau
* Walther von Seydlitz-Kurzbach
* Gerhard von Scharnhorst
* August von Gneisenau
* Carl von Clausewitz
* Albrecht von Roon
* Karl vom Stein zum Altenstein
* Eugen Anton Theophil von Podbielski
* Adolf Wild von Hohenborn
* Erwin von Witzleben
* Job von Witzleben (historian)
* Ludwig Freiherr von und zu der Tann-Rathsamhausen
* Hyazinth Graf Strachwitz von Groß-Zauche und Camminetz
* Gottfried Graf von Bismarck-Schönhausen
* Wessel Freytag von Loringhoven
* Günther von Kluge
* Ernst von Weizsacker
* Ulrich von Hassell
* Heinrich Graf von Lehndorff-Steinort
* Georg von Derfflinger
* Erich von Drygalski
* Ludwig von Wolzogen
* Rudolf von Bennigsen
* Heinrich Freiherr von Lüttwitz
* Remus von Woyrsch
* Gerd von Rundstedt
* Lothar von Richthofen
* Paul Ludwig Ewald von Kleist
* Alfried Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach
* Ferdinand von Sammern-Frankenegg
* Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski
* Franz von Papen
* Joachim von Ribbentrop
* Franz Pfeffer von Salomon
* Werner von Fritsch
* Baldur von Schirach
* Claus von Bülow
* Friedrich Werner von der Schulenburg
* Gustav Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach
* Konstantin von Neurath
* Richard von Weizsacker
* Maximilian von Weichs
* Friedrich Wilhelm von Lindeiner-Wildau
* Chlodwig zu Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst
* Georg von Hertling
* Ferdinand von Zeppelin
* Hans-Georg von Friedeburg
* Robert Ritter von Greim
* Adolf von Baeyer

See also

* Baltic Germans
* Gentry
* German nobility
* East Elbia
* Jonkheer, the Dutch cognate and rough equivalent
* Junker Party, 19th-century Swedish political movement

References

Notes

Bibliography
* Anderson, Margaret Lavinia. "Voter, Junker, Landrat, Priest: The Old Authorities and the New Franchise in Imperial Germany," ''American Historical Review'' (1993) 98#5 pp. 1448–147
in JSTOR
* Carsten, Francis Ludwig. ''A history of the Prussian Junkers'' (1989).
* Hagen, William W. ''Ordinary Prussians – Brandenburg Junkers and Villagers, 1500–1840'' (Cambridge University Press, 2007)
* MacDonogh, Giles, ''After the Reich'', Basic Books, (2007) .
* Ogg, Frederick Austin, ''The Governments of Europe'', MacMillan Company, 1920.
* Ogg, Frederic Austin. ''Economic Development of Modern Europe'', Chap. IX (bibliography, pp. 210–211).
* Stienberg, Jonathan. ''Bismarck a Life'', Oxford University Press, 2011
* Torp, Cornelius. "The "Coalition of 'Rye and Iron'" under the Pressure of Globalization: A Reinterpretation of Germany's Political Economy before 1914," ''Central European History'' (2010) 43#3 pp 401–427
* Weber, Max. "National Character and the Junkers," in ''From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology'' (Routledge classics in sociology) (199

External links

* {{Cite Americana, wstitle=Junkers, year=1920 , short=x

Prussian nobility, .
Conservatism in Germany
German noble titles
Politics of Prussia