prudence (virtue)

The cardinal virtues are four virtues of mind and character in both classical philosophy and Christian theology. They are prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance. They form a virtue theory of ethics. The term ''cardinal'' comes from the Latin (hinge); virtues are so called because they are regarded as the basic virtues required for a virtuous life.

These principles derive initially from Plato in ''Republic'' Book IV, 426–435. Aristotle expounded them systematically in the Nicomachean Ethics. They were also recognized by the Stoics. Cicero expanded on them, and Ambrose, Augustine of Hippo, and Thomas Aquinas adapted them while expanding on the theological virtues.

Four cardinal virtues

* Prudence (, ; la, prudentia; also Wisdom, ''Sophia'', ), the ability to discern the appropriate course of action to be taken in a given situation at the appropriate time, with consideration of potential consequences.
* Justice (, ; la, iustitia): also considered as fairness; the Greek word also having the meaning righteousness
* Fortitude (, ; la, fortitudo): also termed courage: forbearance, strength, endurance, and the ability to confront fear, uncertainty, and intimidation
* Temperance (, ; la, temperantia): also known as restraint, the practice of self-control, abstention, discretion, and moderation tempering the appetition. Plato considered , which may also be translated as sound-mindedness, to be the most important virtue.

Antiquity

The four cardinal virtues appeared as a group (sometimes included in larger lists) long before they were later given this title.

Hellenistic philosophy

Plato identified the four cardinal virtues with the classes of the city described in '' The Republic'', and with the faculties of man. Plato narrates a discussion of the character of a good city where the following is agreed upon.

'' Temperance'' was common to all classes, but primarily associated with the producing classes, the farmers and craftsmen, and with the animal appetites, to whom no special virtue was assigned. ''Fortitude'' was assigned to the warrior class and to the spirited element in man. ''Prudence'' was assigned to the rulers and to reason. '' Justice'' stands outside the class system and divisions of man, and rules the proper relationship among the three of them.

Plato sometimes lists holiness (, , ) amongst the cardinal virtues. He especially associates holiness with justice, but leaves their precise relationship unexplained.

In Aristotle's ''Rhetoric'', we read:

They are expounded fully in the Nicomachean Ethics III.6 — V.2

Philo of Alexandria, a Hellenistic Jewish philosopher, also recognized the four cardinal virtues as prudence, temperance, courage, and justice. In his writings, he states:

These virtues, according to Philo, serve as guiding principles for a virtuous and fulfilling life.

Roman philosophy

The Roman philosopher and statesman Cicero (106–43 BC), like Plato, limits the list to four virtues:

Cicero discusses these further in ''De Officiis'' (I, V and following).

The Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius discusses these in Book V:12 of '' Meditations'' and views them as the "goods" that a person should identify in one's own mind, as opposed to "wealth or things which conduce to luxury or prestige".

In the Bible

The cardinal virtues are listed in the deuterocanonical book Wisdom of Solomon, which in 8:7 reads:

They are also found in other non-canonical scriptures like 4 Maccabees 1:18–19, which relates:

In the New Testament

Wisdom, usually ''Sophia,'' rather than prudence, is discussed extensively in all parts of the New Testament. It is a major topic of 1 Corinthians 2, where the author discusses how divine teaching and power are greater than worldly wisdom.

Justice (, ) is taught extensively in the gospels, where most translators give it as "righteousness".

Plato's word for Fortitude () is not present in the New Testament, but the virtues of steadfastness (, ) and patient endurance (, ) are highly praised.

Temperance (, ), usually translated "sobriety," is present in the New Testament, along with self-control (, ).

In Christian tradition

Catholic moral theology drew from both the Wisdom of Solomon and the Fourth Book of Maccabees in developing its thought on the virtues. Ambrose () was the first to use the expression "cardinal virtues":

Augustine of Hippo, discussing the morals of the church, described them:

In relation to the theological virtues

The "cardinal" virtues are not the same as the three theological virtues: Faith, Hope, and Charity ( Love), named in 1 Corinthians 13.

Because of this reference, a group of seven attributes is sometimes listed by adding the four cardinal virtues (prudence, temperance, fortitude, justice) and three theological virtues (faith, hope, charity).
Together, they compose what is known as the seven virtues. While the first four date back to Greek philosophers and were applicable to all people seeking to live moral lives, the ''theological virtues'' appear to be specific to Christians as written by Paul in the New Testament.

Efforts to relate the cardinal and theological virtues differ. Augustine sees faith as coming under justice. Beginning with a wry comment about the moral mischief of pagan deities, he writes:

Dante Alighieri also attempts to relate the cardinal and theological virtues in his Divine Comedy, most notably in the complex allegorical scheme drawn in ''Purgatorio'' XXIX to XXXI. Depicting a procession in the Garden of Eden (which the author situates at the top of the mountain of purgatory), Dante describes a chariot drawn by a gryphon and accompanied by a vast number of figures, among which stand three women on the right side dressed in red, green and white, and four women on the left, all dressed in red. The chariot is generally understood to represent the holy church, with the women on left and right representing the theological and cardinal virtues respectively. The exact meaning of the allegorical women's role, behaviour, interrelation and color-coding remains a matter of literary interpretation.

In relation to the seven deadly sins

In the High Middle Ages, some authors opposed the seven virtues (cardinal plus theological) to the seven deadly sins. However, “treatises exclusively concentrating on both septenaries are actually quite rare.” and “examples of late medieval catalogues of virtues and vices which extend or upset the double heptad can be easily multiplied.” And there are problems with this parallelism:

Contemporary thought

Jesuit scholars Daniel J. Harrington and James F. Keenan, in their ''Paul and Virtue Ethics'' (2010), argue for seven "new virtues" to replace the classical cardinal virtues in complementing the three theological virtues, mirroring the seven earlier proposed in Bernard Lonergan's ''Method in Theology'' (1972): "be humble, be hospitable, be merciful, be faithful, reconcile, be vigilant, and be reliable".

Allegory

The Cardinal Virtues are often depicted as female allegorical figures and were a popular subject for funerary sculpture. The attributes and names of these figures may vary according to local tradition.

In many churches and artwork the Cardinal Virtues are depicted with symbolic items:

* Justice
*: – sword, balance and scales, a crown

* Temperance
*: – wheel, bridle and reins, vegetables and fish, cup, water and wine in two jugs

* Fortitude
*: – armor, club, with a lion, palm, tower, a yoke, a broken column

* Prudence
*: – book, scroll, mirror, (occasionally) an attacking serpent

Notable depictions include sculptures on the tomb of Francis II, Duke of Brittany and the tomb of John Hotham. They were also depicted in the garden at Edzell Castle.

See also

* ''Cardinal and Theological Virtues'' (Raphael)
* Civic virtue
* Seven deadly sins
* Seven virtues
* Theological virtues

Notes

References

Sources

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External links

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{{Sister bar, auto=yes, wikt=cardinal virtues, commons=Cardinal virtues in art

Christian ethics
Virtue
Platonism
Christian terminology