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Provenance, also known as geographic attribution, in
geology Geology (). is a branch of natural science concerned with the Earth and other astronomical objects, the rocks of which they are composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Modern geology significantly overlaps all other Earth ...
refers to the origins or sources of particles within
sediment Sediment is a solid material that is transported to a new location where it is deposited. It occurs naturally and, through the processes of weathering and erosion, is broken down and subsequently sediment transport, transported by the action of ...
and
sedimentary rocks Sedimentary rocks are types of rock formed by the cementation of sediments—i.e. particles made of minerals (geological detritus) or organic matter (biological detritus)—that have been accumulated or deposited at Earth's surface. Sedim ...
.
Metamorphic Metamorphic rocks arise from the transformation of existing rock to new types of rock in a process called metamorphism. The original rock (protolith) is subjected to temperatures greater than and, often, elevated pressure of or more, causi ...
and igneous rocks are broken down via
weathering Weathering is the deterioration of rocks, soils and minerals (as well as wood and artificial materials) through contact with water, atmospheric gases, sunlight, and biological organisms. It occurs '' in situ'' (on-site, with little or no move ...
and
erosion Erosion is the action of surface processes (such as Surface runoff, water flow or wind) that removes soil, Rock (geology), rock, or dissolved material from one location on the Earth's crust#Crust, Earth's crust and then sediment transport, tran ...
into sediment as part of the
rock cycle The ''rock cycle'' is a basic concept in geology that describes transitions through geologic time among the three main rock types: sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous. Each rock type is altered when it is forced out of its equilibrium cond ...
. These sediments are transported by wind, water, ice, or gravity, before being deposited in horizontal layers. As more sediment is deposited over time, earlier layers are covered and compacted. Finally, they are cemented to form a new rock. Modern geological provenance research specifically refers to the application of compositional analyses to determine sedimental origins. This is often used in conjunction with the study of exhumation histories, forward-modeling of paleo-earth systems, and interpretation of drainage networks and their evolution. In combination, these help to characterize the "source to sink" journey of clastic sediments from the hinterland to a
sedimentary basin Sedimentary basins are region-scale depressions of the Earth's crust where subsidence has occurred and a thick sequence of sediments have accumulated to form a large three-dimensional body of sedimentary rock They form when long-term subsidence ...
. Sediments analyzed for provenance can provide
tectonic Tectonics ( via Latin ) are the processes that result in the structure and properties of the Earth's crust and its evolution through time. The field of ''planetary tectonics'' extends the concept to other planets and moons. These processes ...
, paleogeographic, and paleoclimatic histories. Provenance studies are conducted to investigate scientific questions such as the growth history of the continental crust, the collision history of the Indian and Asian tectonic plates, Asian monsoon intensity, and Himalayan exhumation.


Background


Etymology

Provenance () describes in detail the history of a certain object, with respect to its creation, ownership, custody, and location. The term is commonly used by art historians and archivists, who use it to authenticate a work, document, or other signifigant object.


History

The study of sedimentary provenance involves several geological disciplines, including
mineralogy Mineralogy is a subject of geology specializing in the scientific study of the chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical mineralogy, optical) properties of minerals and mineralized artifact (archaeology), artifacts. Specific s ...
,
geochemistry Geochemistry is the science that uses the tools and principles of chemistry to explain the mechanisms behind major geological systems such as the Earth's crust and its oceans. The realm of geochemistry extends beyond the Earth, encompassing the e ...
, geochronology,
sedimentology Sedimentology encompasses the study of modern sediments such as sand, silt, and clay, and the processes that result in their formation (erosion and weathering), transport, deposition and diagenesis. Sedimentologists apply their understanding of m ...
, and
petrology Petrology () is the branch of geology that studies rocks, their mineralogy, composition, texture, structure and the conditions under which they form. Petrology has three subdivisions: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary petrology. Igneous ...
. The development of provenance methods occurred alongside development of these mainstream geological disciplines. The earliest provenance studies were based on paleocurrent and petrographic analysis (composition and texture of sandstone and conglomerate). In the 1970s, provenance studies expanded to include
tectonic Tectonics ( via Latin ) are the processes that result in the structure and properties of the Earth's crust and its evolution through time. The field of ''planetary tectonics'' extends the concept to other planets and moons. These processes ...
settings (i.e. magmatic arcs, collision orogens, and continental blocks) using sandstone composition. Similarly, bulk-rock geochemistry techniques were applied to interpret provenance, linking geochemical signatures to source rocks and tectonic settings. In the 1980s, advancements in chemical and isotopic microanalysis methods continued. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and sensitive high-resolution ion microprobe (SHRIMP) enabled researchers to analyze single mineral grains.


Purpose

The goal of sedimentary provenance studies is to reconstruct and interpret the history of sediment from parent rocks at a source area to detritus at a burial place, to investigate the characteristics of a source area by analyzing the composition and texture of sediments. Sedimentary provenance analysis can also be a powerful tool to track landscape evolution and changes in sediment dispersal pathways through time. In ''Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks'' (1992), Boggs described the four main goals of provenance studies as follows: # "source(s) of the particles that make up the rocks # erosion and transport mechanisms that moved the particles from source areas to depositional sites # depositional setting and depositional processes responsible for sedimentation of the particles (the depositional environment), # physical and chemical conditions of the burial environment and diagenetic changes that occur in siliciclastic sediment during burial and uplift"


Sediment path


Source

All exposed rocks are subjected to physical or chemical weathering. They are broken down into finer-grained sediments. Igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks can all serve as sources for
detritus In biology, detritus ( or ) is organic matter made up of the decomposition, decomposing remains of organisms and plants, and also of feces. Detritus usually hosts communities of microorganisms that colonize and decomposition, decompose (Reminera ...
.


Transportation

Rocks are transported downstream from higher to lower elevations. Source rocks and detritus are transported by gravity, water, wind, or glacial movement. The transportation process breaks rocks into smaller particles by physical abrasion, from boulder size into sand or even clay. At the same time minerals within the sediment can also be changed chemically. Only minerals that are more resistant to chemical weathering can survive (e.g. ultrastable minerals such as
zircon Zircon () is a mineral belonging to the group of nesosilicates and is a source of the metal zirconium. Its chemical name is zirconium(IV) silicate, and its corresponding chemical formula is Zr SiO4. An empirical formula showing some of th ...
,
tourmaline Tourmaline ( ) is a crystalline silicate mineral, silicate mineral group in which boron is chemical compound, compounded with chemical element, elements such as aluminium, iron, magnesium, sodium, lithium, or potassium. This gemstone comes in a ...
, and
rutile Rutile is an oxide mineral composed of titanium dioxide (TiO2), the most common natural form of TiO2. Rarer polymorphs of TiO2 are known, including anatase, akaogiite, and brookite. Rutile has one of the highest refractive indices at vis ...
). During transportation, minerals can be sorted by their density, and as a result, light minerals (such as quartz and mica) will be moved faster and further than heavy minerals (such as zircon and tourmaline).


Accumulation

After a certain distance of transportation, detritus reaches a sedimentary basin and accumulates in one place. With the accumulation of sediments, sediments are buried to a deeper level and go through
diagenesis Diagenesis () is the process of physical and chemical changes in sediments first caused by water-rock interactions, microbial activity, and compaction after their deposition. Increased pressure and temperature only start to play a role as sedi ...
, which turns separate sediments into sedimentary rocks (i.e. conglomerate,
sandstone Sandstone is a Clastic rock#Sedimentary clastic rocks, clastic sedimentary rock composed mainly of grain size, sand-sized (0.0625 to 2 mm) silicate mineral, silicate grains, Cementation (geology), cemented together by another mineral. Sand ...
,
mudrock Mudrocks are a class of fine-grained siliciclastic sedimentary rocks. The varying types of mudrocks include siltstone, claystone, mudstone and shale. Most of the particles of which the stone is composed are less than and are too small to ...
s,
limestone Limestone is a type of carbonate rock, carbonate sedimentary rock which is the main source of the material Lime (material), lime. It is composed mostly of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different Polymorphism (materials science) ...
, etc.) and some
metamorphic rock Metamorphic rocks arise from the transformation of existing rock to new types of rock in a process called metamorphism. The original rock ( protolith) is subjected to temperatures greater than and, often, elevated pressure of or more, caus ...
s (such as
quartzite Quartzite is a hard, non- foliated metamorphic rock that was originally pure quartz sandstone.Essentials of Geology, 3rd Edition, Stephen Marshak, p 182 Sandstone is converted into quartzite through heating and pressure usually related to tecton ...
) which were derived from sedimentary rocks. After sediments are weathered and eroded from mountain belts, they can be carried by stream and deposited along rivers as river sands. Detritus can also be transported and deposited in
foreland basin A foreland basin is a structural basin that develops adjacent and parallel to a mountain belt. Foreland basins form because the immense mass created by crustal thickening associated with the evolution of a mountain belt causes the lithospher ...
s and offshore fans. The detrital record can be collected from all these places and can be used in provenance studies.


Reworking of detritus

After detritus is eroded from a source area, it is transported and deposited in river, foreland basin, or flood plain. Then the detritus can be eroded and transported again when flooding or other kinds of eroding events occur. This process is called as reworking of detritus and could be problematic to provenance studies. For example, U-Pb zircon ages are generally considered to reflect the time of zircon crystallization at about 750 °C. Zircon is resistant to physical abrasion and chemical weathering; so, zircon grains can survive multiple cycles of reworking. This means that if the zircon grain is reworked (re-eroded) from a foreland basin, and not from original mountain-belt source area, it will lose information of reworking (the detrital record will not indicate the foreland basin as a source area but will indicate the earlier mountain belt as the source). To avoid this problem, samples can be collected close to the mountain front, upstream from which there is no significant sediment storage.


Provenance methods

Generally, provenance methods can be sorted into two categories: petrological methods and geochemical methods.


Petrological methods

Examples of petrological methods include QFL ternary diagram, heavy mineral assemblages (
apatite Apatite is a group of phosphate minerals, usually hydroxyapatite, fluorapatite and chlorapatite, with high concentrations of Hydroxide, OH−, Fluoride, F− and Chloride, Cl− ion, respectively, in the crystal. The formula of the admixture of ...
tourmaline Tourmaline ( ) is a crystalline silicate mineral, silicate mineral group in which boron is chemical compound, compounded with chemical element, elements such as aluminium, iron, magnesium, sodium, lithium, or potassium. This gemstone comes in a ...
index,
garnet Garnets () are a group of silicate minerals that have been used since the Bronze Age as gemstones and abrasives. Garnet minerals, while sharing similar physical and crystallographic properties, exhibit a wide range of chemical compositions, de ...
zircon Zircon () is a mineral belonging to the group of nesosilicates and is a source of the metal zirconium. Its chemical name is zirconium(IV) silicate, and its corresponding chemical formula is Zr SiO4. An empirical formula showing some of th ...
index),
clay mineral Clay minerals are hydrous aluminium phyllosilicates (e.g. kaolin, Al2 Si2 O5( OH)4), sometimes with variable amounts of iron, magnesium, alkali metals, alkaline earths, and other cations found on or near some planetary surfaces. Clay minera ...
assemblages and
illite Illite, also called hydromica or hydromuscovite, is a group of closely related non-expanding clay minerals. Illite is a secondary mineral precipitate, and an example of a phyllosilicate, or layered alumino-silicate. Its structure is a 2:1 sandw ...
crystallinity Crystallinity refers to the degree of structural order in a solid. In a crystal, the atoms or molecules are arranged in a regular, periodic manner. The degree of crystallinity has a large influence on hardness, density, transparency and diffusi ...
, reworked fossils and palynomorphs, and stock magnetic properties.


Geochemical methods

Examples of geochemical methods include zircon U-Pb dating (plus Hf isotope), zircon fission track, apatite fission track, bulk sediment Nd and Sr isotopes, garnet chemistry,
pyroxene The pyroxenes (commonly abbreviated Px) are a group of important rock-forming inosilicate minerals found in many igneous and metamorphic rocks. Pyroxenes have the general formula , where X represents ions of calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), iron ( ...
chemistry, and
amphibole Amphibole ( ) is a group of inosilicate minerals, forming prism or needlelike crystals, composed of double chain tetrahedra, linked at the vertices and generally containing ions of iron and/or magnesium in their structures. Its IMA symbol is ...
chemistry. See the summary table below for various types of provenance methods.


Plate tectonics

This method has the ability to link sandstone composition to tectonic setting. This method is described in the 1979 Dickinson and Suczek paper.


Resolving provenance problems by dating detrital minerals

Geochronology Geochronology is the science of Chronological dating, determining the age of rock (geology), rocks, fossils, and sediments using signatures inherent in the rocks themselves. Absolute geochronology can be accomplished through radioactive isotopes, ...
and
thermochronology Thermochronology is the study of the thermal evolution of a region of a planet. Thermochronologists use radiometric dating along with the closure temperatures that represent the temperature of the mineral being studied at the time given by the dat ...
have been applied to solve provenance and tectonic problems. Detrital minerals used in this method include zircon, monazite, white mica, and apatite. The ages dated from these minerals indicate the timing of
crystallization Crystallization is a process that leads to solids with highly organized Atom, atoms or Molecule, molecules, i.e. a crystal. The ordered nature of a crystalline solid can be contrasted with amorphous solids in which atoms or molecules lack regu ...
and multiple tectono-thermal events. This method is based on the following considerations: "(1) the source areas are characterized by rocks with different tectonic histories recorded by distinctive crystallization and cooling ages; (2) the source rocks contain the selected mineral;" and (3) a detrital mineral such as zircon is ultra-stable, which means it is capable of surviving multiple phases of physical and chemical weathering, erosion, and deposition. This property make these detrital minerals ideal to record long histories of crystallization of tectonically complex source areas. The figure to the right is an example of U–Pb relative age probability diagram. The upper plot shows foreland basin detrital zircon age distribution. The lower plot shows hinterland (source area) zircon age distribution. In the plots, n is the number of analyzed zircon grains. So for foreland basin Amile formation, 74 grains are analyzed. For source area (divided into 3 tectonic level, Tethyan Himalaya, Greater Himalaya and Lesser Himalaya), 962, 409 and 666 grains are analyzed respectively. To correlate hinterland and foreland data, let's see the source area record first, Tethyan sequence have age peak at ~500 Myr, 1000 Myr and 2600 Myr, Greater Himalaya has age peaks at ~1200 Myr and 2500 Myr, and Lesser Himalaya sequence has age peaks at ~1800 Ma and 2600 Ma. By simply comparing the foreland basin record with source area record, we cam see that Amile formation resemble age distribution of Lesser Himalaya. It has about 20 grains with age ~1800 Myr (
Paleoproterozoic The Paleoproterozoic Era (also spelled Palaeoproterozoic) is the first of the three sub-divisions ( eras) of the Proterozoic eon, and also the longest era of the Earth's geological history, spanning from (2.5–1.6  Ga). It is further sub ...
) and about 16 grains yield age of ~2600 Myr (
Archean The Archean ( , also spelled Archaean or Archæan), in older sources sometimes called the Archaeozoic, is the second of the four geologic eons of Earth's history of Earth, history, preceded by the Hadean Eon and followed by the Proterozoic and t ...
). Then we can interpret that sediments of Amile formation are mainly derived from the Lesser Himalaya, and rocks yield ago of Paleoproterozoic and Archean are from the Indian craton. So the story is: Indian plate collide with Tibet, rocks of Indian craton deformed and involved into Himalayan thrust belt (e.g. Lesser Himalaya sequence), then eroded and deposited at foreland basin. The U–Pb geochronology of zircons was conducted by laser-ablated, multicollector, inductively-coupled plasma mass spectrometry ( LA-MC-ICPMS).


Bulk sediment Nd and Sr

The properties of the samarium–neodymium dating (Sm–Nd) radioactive isotope system can provide age estimations of sedimentary source rocks; the system has been used in provenance studies. 143Nd is produced by α decay of 147Sm and has a half life of 1.06×1011 years. A variation of 143Nd/144Nd is caused by the decay of 147Sm. Now the Sm/Nd ratio of Earth's mantle is higher than that of its crust and the 143Nd/144Nd ratio is also higher in the mantle than in the crust. The 143Nd/144Nd ratio is expressed in εNd notation (DePaolo and Wasserbur 1976). \epsilon Nd = 10^4 \left frac-1 \right/math>, where CHUR refers to the Chondritic Uniform Reservoir. So, ϵNd is a function of T (time). The Nd isotope evolution in the mantle and crust is shown in the figure to the right. The bold line in the upper plot shows the evolution of the bulk earth or CHUR. The lower plot shows the evolution of bulk earth (CHUR) in the crust and mantle; 143Nd/144Nd is transformed to εNd. Normally, most rocks have εNd values in the range of -20 to +10. Calculated εNd value of rocks can be correlated to source rocks to perform provenance studies. In addition, Sr and Nd isotopes have been used to study both provenance and weathering intensity. Nd is mainly unaffected by weathering processes, but the 87Sr/86Sr value is more affected by chemical weathering.


Summary

Provenance study methods are also listed in the table below:


Analysis methods and instruments

Selection of instruments and methods for sediment provenance are informed by grain size. For conglomerates and boulders, where original mineral paragenesis is preserved, almost all analytical methods can be used. For finer-grained sediments, where loss of paragenetic information is a concern, only a limited range of analytical methods are appropriate. Data acquisition approaches for provenance study fall into the following three categories: (1) analyzing bulk composition to extract petrographic, mineralogical, and chemical information; (2) analyzing specific groups of minerals such as heavy minerals; and (3) analyzing single mineral grains for morphological, chemical, and isotopic properties. For bulk composition analysis, samples are crushed, powdered, and disintegrated, or melted. Then, measurement of major and trace and rare-earth elements (REE) are conducted by using methods such as atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS),
X-ray fluorescence X-ray fluorescence (XRF) is the emission of characteristic "secondary" (or fluorescent) X-rays from a material that has been excited by being bombarded with high-energy X-rays or gamma rays. The phenomenon is widely used for elemental analysis ...
(XRF),
neutron activation analysis Neutron activation analysis (NAA) is a nuclear reaction, nuclear process used for determining the concentrations of chemical element, elements in many materials. NAA allows discrete Sampling (statistics), sampling of elements as it disregards the ...
(NAA), etc. Sand-sized sediments are can be analyzed by single-grain methods, which can be divided into the following three groups: # Microscopic-morphological techniques, which are used to observe shape, color and internal structures in minerals. For example, using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) and cathodoluminescence (CL) detector. # Single grain geochemical techniques, which are used to discern chemical composition and variations within minerals. For example, laser-ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). # Radiometric dating of a single-grain mineral, a method that can determine the geochronological and thermochronological properties of minerals. For example, U/Pb SHRIMP dating and 40Ar/39Ar laser-probe dating.


Limitations of provenance studies

During transportation from the source area to the basin, detritus is subject to weathering, mixing, deposition, diagenesis, and recycling. This complex set of factors can modify parent lithology, both compositionally and textually. The following sections introduce the major problems and limitations of provenance studies.


Candidate source area

To correlate sediments (detrital record) to source area, several possible source areas need to be chosen for comparison. Sediment source areas may be missed during site selection and thus not chosen as a candidate source area. This can cause misinterpretation in correlating sediment to source.


Grain size

Grain size could cause misinterpretation in provenance studies. During transportation and deposition, detritus is subject to mechanical breakdown, chemical alternation, and sorting. This results in a preferential enrichment of specific materials in a certain range of grain-size, and sediment composition tends to be a function of grain size. For instance, SiO2/Al2O3 ratios decrease with decreasing grain size because Al-rich phyllosilicate enriches at the expense of Si-rich phase in fine-grained detritus. This means the changing of composition of the detrital record could reflect the effects of grain size sorting and not only changing of provenance. To minimize the influence of sedimentary sorting on provenance method (like Sr-Nd isotopic method), only very-fine-grained-to-fine-grained sandstones are collected as samples. Medium-grained sandstones can be used when alternatives are unavailable.


Mixing of detritus

Mixing of detritus from multiple sources may cause problems in correlating the final detrital record to source rocks, especially when dispersal pathways are complex and involve the recycling of previously deposited sediments. For example, if a detrital record contains zircon grains that are one billion years old are transported by rivers flowing through two source areas containing zircons of the same age, it would not be possible to determine which of the two upstream source areas was the source of the zircon detritus.


Diagenesis

Diagenesis could be a problem when analyzing detrital records, especially when dealing with ancient sediments, which are always lithified. The variation of clay minerals in a detrital record may not reflect variation in provenance rock, but rather a burial effect. For example, clay minerals become unstable at great depth:
kaolinite Kaolinite ( ; also called kaolin) is a clay mineral, with the chemical composition Al2 Si2 O5( OH)4. It is a layered silicate mineral, with one tetrahedral sheet of silica () linked through oxygen atoms to one octahedral sheet of alumina () ...
and
smectite A smectite (; ; ) is a mineral mixture of various swelling sheet silicates (phyllosilicates), which have a three-layer 2:1 (TOT) structure and belong to the clay minerals. Smectites mainly consist of montmorillonite, but can often contain secon ...
become
illite Illite, also called hydromica or hydromuscovite, is a group of closely related non-expanding clay minerals. Illite is a secondary mineral precipitate, and an example of a phyllosilicate, or layered alumino-silicate. Its structure is a 2:1 sandw ...
. If there is a reduction in illite components in a drilling core, the record does not necessarily show more illite-yielding source rock, because it could also be as a result of burial and alternation of minerals.


Hinterland structural assumption

Provenance study tries to correlate detrital record (which is stored in basins) to hinterland
stratigraphy Stratigraphy is a branch of geology concerned with the study of rock layers (strata) and layering (stratification). It is primarily used in the study of sedimentary and layered volcanic rocks. Stratigraphy has three related subfields: lithost ...
. Hinterland stratigraphy is structurally controlled by fault systems, so the hinterland structural setting is important to interpretation of the detrital record. Hinterland structural setting is estimated by field mapping work. Geologists work along river valleys and traverse mountain belts (thrust belt), locate major faults, and describe major stratigraphy bounded by faults in the area. A geologic map is the product of field mapping work, and cross-sections can be constructed by interpreting a geologic map. However, hinterland structural settings are not definite, but rather are assumptions based on the best available data. For example, the figure shows a classic thrust belt and foreland basin system. The thrust fault carries overlying rocks to the surface and rocks of various
lithology The lithology of a rock unit is a description of its physical characteristics visible at outcrop, in hand or core samples, or with low magnification microscopy. Physical characteristics include colour, texture, grain size, and composition. Lit ...
are eroded and transported to be deposited at the foreland basin. In structural assumption 1, the pink layer is assumed to exist above thrust 2 and thrust 3, but in structural assumption 2, the pink layer is only carried by thrust 2. Detrital records are stored in foreland basin stratigraphy. Within that stratigraphy, the pink layer is correlated to the hinterland pink layer. If we use structural assumption 2, we can interpret that thrust 2 was active about 5 and 12 million years ago. But when using the other assumption, we couldn't know if the pink layer record indicates activity of thrust 2 or 3.


Applications

Provenance methods are used in the oil and gas industry. "Relations between provenance and basin are important for
hydrocarbon exploration Hydrocarbon exploration (or oil and gas exploration) is the search by petroleum geologists and geophysicists for hydrocarbon deposits, particularly petroleum and natural gas, in the Earth's crust using petroleum geology. Exploration methods ...
because sand frameworks of contrasting detrital compositions respond differently to
diagenesis Diagenesis () is the process of physical and chemical changes in sediments first caused by water-rock interactions, microbial activity, and compaction after their deposition. Increased pressure and temperature only start to play a role as sedi ...
, and thus display different trends of
porosity Porosity or void fraction is a measure of the void (i.e. "empty") spaces in a material, and is a fraction of the volume of voids over the total volume, between 0 and 1, or as a percentage between 0% and 100%. Strictly speaking, some tests measure ...
reduction with depth of burial." A combination of multiple provenance methods (e.g.
petrography Petrography is a branch of petrology that focuses on detailed descriptions of rocks. Someone who studies petrography is called a petrographer. The mineral content and the textural relationships within the rock are described in detail. The clas ...
, heavy mineral analysis, mineral geochemistry, wholerock geochemistry, geochronology, and drainage capture analysis) can provide valuable insights for
hydrocarbon In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon. Hydrocarbons are examples of group 14 hydrides. Hydrocarbons are generally colourless and Hydrophobe, hydrophobic; their odor is usually fain ...
exploration and production. In the exploration stage, provenance studies can enhance the understanding of reservoir distribution and reservoir quality. In the development stage, mineralogical and chemical techniques are used to estimate reservoir zonation and correlation of stratigraphy. Provenance techniques are also used in the production stage. For example, such techniques are used to assess permeability variations and well-decline rate resulting from spatial variability in diagenesis and depositional facies.


See also

*
Uranium–lead dating Uranium–lead dating, abbreviated U–Pb dating, is one of the oldest and most refined of the radiometric dating schemes. It can be used to date rocks that formed and crystallised from about 1 million years to over 4.5 billion years ago with routi ...
*
Petrology Petrology () is the branch of geology that studies rocks, their mineralogy, composition, texture, structure and the conditions under which they form. Petrology has three subdivisions: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary petrology. Igneous ...
*
Mineralogy Mineralogy is a subject of geology specializing in the scientific study of the chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical mineralogy, optical) properties of minerals and mineralized artifact (archaeology), artifacts. Specific s ...
* Heavy mineral


References

{{Reflist, 30em


External links


Arizona Laserchron Center, Department of Geosciences, University of Arizona



Sample preparation by UCLA SIM lab

Diagenesis and Reservoir Quality - by Schlumberger
Geology