
Provenance, also known as geographic attribution, in
geology
Geology (). is a branch of natural science concerned with the Earth and other astronomical objects, the rocks of which they are composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Modern geology significantly overlaps all other Earth ...
refers to the origins or sources of particles within
sediment
Sediment is a solid material that is transported to a new location where it is deposited. It occurs naturally and, through the processes of weathering and erosion, is broken down and subsequently sediment transport, transported by the action of ...
and
sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks are types of rock formed by the cementation of sediments—i.e. particles made of minerals (geological detritus) or organic matter (biological detritus)—that have been accumulated or deposited at Earth's surface. Sedim ...
.
Metamorphic
Metamorphic rocks arise from the transformation of existing rock to new types of rock in a process called metamorphism. The original rock (protolith) is subjected to temperatures greater than and, often, elevated pressure of or more, causi ...
and
igneous rocks are broken down via
weathering
Weathering is the deterioration of rocks, soils and minerals (as well as wood and artificial materials) through contact with water, atmospheric gases, sunlight, and biological organisms. It occurs '' in situ'' (on-site, with little or no move ...
and
erosion
Erosion is the action of surface processes (such as Surface runoff, water flow or wind) that removes soil, Rock (geology), rock, or dissolved material from one location on the Earth's crust#Crust, Earth's crust and then sediment transport, tran ...
into sediment as part of the
rock cycle
The ''rock cycle'' is a basic concept in geology that describes transitions through geologic time among the three main rock types: sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous. Each rock type is altered when it is forced out of its equilibrium cond ...
. These sediments are transported by wind, water, ice, or gravity, before being deposited in horizontal layers. As more sediment is deposited over time, earlier layers are covered and compacted. Finally, they are cemented to form a new rock.
Modern geological provenance research specifically refers to the application of compositional analyses to determine sedimental origins. This is often used in conjunction with the study of exhumation histories, forward-modeling of paleo-earth systems, and interpretation of drainage networks and their evolution. In combination, these help to characterize the "source to sink" journey of
clastic sediments from the hinterland to a
sedimentary basin
Sedimentary basins are region-scale depressions of the Earth's crust where subsidence has occurred and a thick sequence of sediments have accumulated to form a large three-dimensional body of sedimentary rock They form when long-term subsidence ...
. Sediments analyzed for provenance can provide
tectonic
Tectonics ( via Latin ) are the processes that result in the structure and properties of the Earth's crust and its evolution through time. The field of ''planetary tectonics'' extends the concept to other planets and moons.
These processes ...
,
paleogeographic, and
paleoclimatic histories.
Provenance studies are conducted to investigate scientific questions such as the growth history of the continental crust, the collision history of the Indian and Asian tectonic plates,
Asian monsoon intensity, and Himalayan exhumation.
Background
Etymology
Provenance () describes in detail the history of a certain object, with respect to its creation, ownership, custody, and location. The term is commonly used by art historians and archivists, who use it to authenticate a work, document, or other signifigant object.
History
The study of sedimentary provenance involves several geological disciplines, including
mineralogy
Mineralogy is a subject of geology specializing in the scientific study of the chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical mineralogy, optical) properties of minerals and mineralized artifact (archaeology), artifacts. Specific s ...
,
geochemistry
Geochemistry is the science that uses the tools and principles of chemistry to explain the mechanisms behind major geological systems such as the Earth's crust and its oceans. The realm of geochemistry extends beyond the Earth, encompassing the e ...
, geochronology,
sedimentology
Sedimentology encompasses the study of modern sediments such as sand, silt, and clay, and the processes that result in their formation (erosion and weathering), transport, deposition and diagenesis. Sedimentologists apply their understanding of m ...
, and
petrology
Petrology () is the branch of geology that studies rocks, their mineralogy, composition, texture, structure and the conditions under which they form. Petrology has three subdivisions: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary petrology. Igneous ...
. The development of provenance methods occurred alongside development of these mainstream geological disciplines.
The earliest provenance studies were based on
paleocurrent and
petrographic analysis (composition and texture of sandstone and conglomerate). In the 1970s, provenance studies expanded to include
tectonic
Tectonics ( via Latin ) are the processes that result in the structure and properties of the Earth's crust and its evolution through time. The field of ''planetary tectonics'' extends the concept to other planets and moons.
These processes ...
settings (i.e. magmatic arcs, collision orogens, and continental blocks) using sandstone composition.
Similarly, bulk-rock geochemistry techniques were applied to interpret provenance, linking geochemical signatures to source rocks and tectonic settings.
In the 1980s, advancements in chemical and isotopic
microanalysis methods continued.
Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and
sensitive high-resolution ion microprobe (SHRIMP) enabled researchers to analyze single mineral grains.
Purpose
The goal of sedimentary provenance studies is to reconstruct and interpret the history of sediment from parent rocks at a source area to detritus at a burial place,
to investigate the characteristics of a source area by analyzing the composition and texture of sediments. Sedimentary provenance analysis can also be a powerful tool to track landscape evolution and changes in sediment dispersal pathways through time.
In ''Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks'' (1992), Boggs described the four main goals of provenance studies as follows:
# "source(s) of the particles that make up the rocks
# erosion and transport mechanisms that moved the particles from source areas to depositional sites
# depositional setting and depositional processes responsible for sedimentation of the particles (the depositional environment),
# physical and chemical conditions of the burial environment and diagenetic changes that occur in siliciclastic sediment during burial and uplift"
Sediment path
Source
All exposed rocks are subjected to physical or chemical weathering. They are broken down into finer-grained sediments. Igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks can all serve as sources for
detritus
In biology, detritus ( or ) is organic matter made up of the decomposition, decomposing remains of organisms and plants, and also of feces. Detritus usually hosts communities of microorganisms that colonize and decomposition, decompose (Reminera ...
.
Transportation

Rocks are transported downstream from higher to lower elevations. Source rocks and detritus are transported by gravity, water, wind, or glacial movement. The transportation process breaks rocks into smaller particles by physical abrasion, from boulder size into sand or even clay. At the same time minerals within the sediment can also be changed chemically. Only minerals that are more resistant to chemical weathering can survive (e.g. ultrastable minerals such as
zircon
Zircon () is a mineral belonging to the group of nesosilicates and is a source of the metal zirconium. Its chemical name is zirconium(IV) silicate, and its corresponding chemical formula is Zr SiO4. An empirical formula showing some of th ...
,
tourmaline
Tourmaline ( ) is a crystalline silicate mineral, silicate mineral group in which boron is chemical compound, compounded with chemical element, elements such as aluminium, iron, magnesium, sodium, lithium, or potassium. This gemstone comes in a ...
, and
rutile
Rutile is an oxide mineral composed of titanium dioxide (TiO2), the most common natural form of TiO2. Rarer polymorphs of TiO2 are known, including anatase, akaogiite, and brookite.
Rutile has one of the highest refractive indices at vis ...
). During transportation, minerals can be sorted by their density, and as a result, light minerals (such as quartz and mica) will be moved faster and further than heavy minerals (such as zircon and tourmaline).
Accumulation
After a certain distance of transportation, detritus reaches a sedimentary basin and accumulates in one place. With the accumulation of sediments, sediments are buried to a deeper level and go through
diagenesis
Diagenesis () is the process of physical and chemical changes in sediments first caused by water-rock interactions, microbial activity, and compaction after their deposition. Increased pressure and temperature only start to play a role as sedi ...
, which turns separate sediments into sedimentary rocks (i.e.
conglomerate,
sandstone
Sandstone is a Clastic rock#Sedimentary clastic rocks, clastic sedimentary rock composed mainly of grain size, sand-sized (0.0625 to 2 mm) silicate mineral, silicate grains, Cementation (geology), cemented together by another mineral. Sand ...
,
mudrock
Mudrocks are a class of fine-grained siliciclastic sedimentary rocks. The varying types of mudrocks include siltstone, claystone, mudstone and shale. Most of the particles of which the stone is composed are less than and are too small to ...
s,
limestone
Limestone is a type of carbonate rock, carbonate sedimentary rock which is the main source of the material Lime (material), lime. It is composed mostly of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different Polymorphism (materials science) ...
, etc.) and some
metamorphic rock
Metamorphic rocks arise from the transformation of existing rock to new types of rock in a process called metamorphism. The original rock ( protolith) is subjected to temperatures greater than and, often, elevated pressure of or more, caus ...
s (such as
quartzite
Quartzite is a hard, non- foliated metamorphic rock that was originally pure quartz sandstone.Essentials of Geology, 3rd Edition, Stephen Marshak, p 182 Sandstone is converted into quartzite through heating and pressure usually related to tecton ...
) which were derived from sedimentary rocks. After sediments are weathered and eroded from mountain belts, they can be carried by stream and deposited along rivers as river sands. Detritus can also be transported and deposited in
foreland basin
A foreland basin is a structural basin that develops adjacent and parallel to a mountain belt. Foreland basins form because the immense mass created by crustal thickening associated with the evolution of a mountain belt causes the lithospher ...
s and offshore fans. The detrital record can be collected from all these places and can be used in provenance studies.
Reworking of detritus
After detritus is eroded from a source area, it is transported and deposited in river, foreland basin, or flood plain. Then the detritus can be eroded and transported again when flooding or other kinds of eroding events occur. This process is called as reworking of detritus and could be problematic to provenance studies.
For example, U-Pb
zircon ages are generally considered to reflect the time of zircon crystallization at about 750 °C. Zircon is resistant to physical abrasion and chemical weathering; so, zircon grains can survive multiple cycles of reworking. This means that if the zircon grain is reworked (re-eroded) from a foreland basin, and not from original mountain-belt source area, it will lose information of reworking (the detrital record will not indicate the foreland basin as a source area but will indicate the earlier mountain belt as the source). To avoid this problem, samples can be collected close to the mountain front, upstream from which there is no significant sediment storage.
Provenance methods
Generally, provenance methods can be sorted into two categories: petrological methods and geochemical methods.
Petrological methods
Examples of petrological methods include QFL ternary diagram,
heavy mineral assemblages (
apatite
Apatite is a group of phosphate minerals, usually hydroxyapatite, fluorapatite and chlorapatite, with high concentrations of Hydroxide, OH−, Fluoride, F− and Chloride, Cl− ion, respectively, in the crystal. The formula of the admixture of ...
–
tourmaline
Tourmaline ( ) is a crystalline silicate mineral, silicate mineral group in which boron is chemical compound, compounded with chemical element, elements such as aluminium, iron, magnesium, sodium, lithium, or potassium. This gemstone comes in a ...
index,
garnet
Garnets () are a group of silicate minerals that have been used since the Bronze Age as gemstones and abrasives.
Garnet minerals, while sharing similar physical and crystallographic properties, exhibit a wide range of chemical compositions, de ...
zircon
Zircon () is a mineral belonging to the group of nesosilicates and is a source of the metal zirconium. Its chemical name is zirconium(IV) silicate, and its corresponding chemical formula is Zr SiO4. An empirical formula showing some of th ...
index),
clay mineral
Clay minerals are hydrous aluminium phyllosilicates (e.g. kaolin, Al2 Si2 O5( OH)4), sometimes with variable amounts of iron, magnesium, alkali metals, alkaline earths, and other cations found on or near some planetary surfaces.
Clay minera ...
assemblages and
illite
Illite, also called hydromica or hydromuscovite, is a group of closely related non-expanding clay minerals. Illite is a secondary mineral precipitate, and an example of a phyllosilicate, or layered alumino-silicate. Its structure is a 2:1 sandw ...
crystallinity
Crystallinity refers to the degree of structural order in a solid. In a crystal, the atoms or molecules are arranged in a regular, periodic manner. The degree of crystallinity has a large influence on hardness, density, transparency and diffusi ...
, reworked fossils and
palynomorphs, and stock magnetic properties.
Geochemical methods
Examples of geochemical methods include zircon U-Pb dating (plus
Hf isotope), zircon
fission track, apatite fission track, bulk sediment Nd and Sr isotopes, garnet chemistry,
pyroxene
The pyroxenes (commonly abbreviated Px) are a group of important rock-forming inosilicate minerals found in many igneous and metamorphic rocks. Pyroxenes have the general formula , where X represents ions of calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), iron ( ...
chemistry, and
amphibole
Amphibole ( ) is a group of inosilicate minerals, forming prism or needlelike crystals, composed of double chain tetrahedra, linked at the vertices and generally containing ions of iron and/or magnesium in their structures. Its IMA symbol is ...
chemistry. See the summary table below for various types of provenance methods.
Plate tectonics
This method has the ability to link sandstone composition to tectonic setting. This method is described in the 1979 Dickinson and Suczek paper.
Resolving provenance problems by dating detrital minerals
Geochronology
Geochronology is the science of Chronological dating, determining the age of rock (geology), rocks, fossils, and sediments using signatures inherent in the rocks themselves. Absolute geochronology can be accomplished through radioactive isotopes, ...
and
thermochronology
Thermochronology is the study of the thermal evolution of a region of a planet. Thermochronologists use radiometric dating along with the closure temperatures that represent the temperature of the mineral being studied at the time given by the dat ...
have been applied to solve provenance and tectonic problems.
Detrital minerals used in this method include zircon,
monazite,
white mica, and apatite. The ages dated from these minerals indicate the timing of
crystallization
Crystallization is a process that leads to solids with highly organized Atom, atoms or Molecule, molecules, i.e. a crystal. The ordered nature of a crystalline solid can be contrasted with amorphous solids in which atoms or molecules lack regu ...
and multiple tectono-thermal events. This method is based on the following considerations: "(1) the source areas are characterized by rocks with different tectonic histories recorded by distinctive crystallization and cooling ages; (2) the source rocks contain the selected mineral;"
and (3) a detrital mineral such as zircon is ultra-stable, which means it is capable of surviving multiple phases of physical and chemical weathering, erosion, and deposition. This property make these detrital minerals ideal to record long histories of crystallization of tectonically complex source areas.
The figure to the right is an example of
U–Pb relative age probability diagram.
The upper plot shows foreland basin detrital zircon age distribution. The lower plot shows hinterland (source area) zircon age distribution. In the plots, n is the number of analyzed zircon grains. So for foreland basin Amile formation, 74 grains are analyzed. For source area (divided into 3 tectonic level, Tethyan Himalaya, Greater Himalaya and
Lesser Himalaya), 962, 409 and 666 grains are analyzed respectively. To correlate hinterland and foreland data, let's see the source area record first, Tethyan sequence have age peak at ~500 Myr, 1000 Myr and 2600 Myr, Greater Himalaya has age peaks at ~1200 Myr and 2500 Myr, and Lesser Himalaya sequence has age peaks at ~1800 Ma and 2600 Ma. By simply comparing the foreland basin record with source area record, we cam see that Amile formation resemble age distribution of Lesser Himalaya. It has about 20 grains with age ~1800 Myr (
Paleoproterozoic
The Paleoproterozoic Era (also spelled Palaeoproterozoic) is the first of the three sub-divisions ( eras) of the Proterozoic eon, and also the longest era of the Earth's geological history, spanning from (2.5–1.6 Ga). It is further sub ...
) and about 16 grains yield age of ~2600 Myr (
Archean
The Archean ( , also spelled Archaean or Archæan), in older sources sometimes called the Archaeozoic, is the second of the four geologic eons of Earth's history of Earth, history, preceded by the Hadean Eon and followed by the Proterozoic and t ...
). Then we can interpret that sediments of Amile formation are mainly derived from the Lesser Himalaya, and rocks yield ago of Paleoproterozoic and Archean are from the
Indian craton. So the story is: Indian plate collide with Tibet, rocks of Indian craton deformed and involved into Himalayan thrust belt (e.g. Lesser Himalaya sequence), then eroded and deposited at foreland basin.
The U–Pb geochronology of zircons was conducted by laser-ablated, multicollector, inductively-coupled plasma mass spectrometry (
LA-MC-ICPMS).
Bulk sediment Nd and Sr

The properties of the
samarium–neodymium dating (Sm–Nd) radioactive isotope system can provide age estimations of sedimentary source rocks; the system has been used in provenance studies.
143Nd is produced by α decay of
147Sm and has a half life of 1.06×10
11 years. A variation of
143Nd/
144Nd is caused by the decay of
147Sm. Now the Sm/Nd ratio of Earth's mantle is higher than that of its crust and the
143Nd/
144Nd ratio is also higher in the mantle than in the crust. The
143Nd/
144Nd ratio is expressed in εNd notation (DePaolo and Wasserbur 1976).