protectorate

A protectorate, in the context of international relations, is a state that is under protection by another state for defence against aggression and other violations of law. It is a dependent territory that enjoys autonomy over most of its internal affairs, while still recognizing the suzerainty of a more powerful sovereign state without being a possession. In exchange, the protectorate usually accepts specified obligations depending on the terms of their arrangement. Usually protectorates are established de jure by a treaty. Under certain conditions—as with Egypt under British rule (1882–1914)—a state can also be labelled as a de facto protectorate or a veiled protectorate.

A protectorate is different from a colony as it has local rulers, is not directly possessed, and rarely experiences colonization by the suzerain state. A state that is under the protection of another state while retaining its "international personality" is called a "protected state", not a protectorate.

History

Protectorates are one of the oldest features of international relations, dating back to the Roman Empire. ''Civitates foederatae'' were cities that were subordinate to Rome for their foreign relations. In the Middle Ages, Andorra was a protectorate of France and Spain. Modern protectorate concepts were devised in the nineteenth century.

Typology

Foreign relations

In practice, a protectorate often has direct foreign relations only with the protector state, and transfers the management of all its more important international affairs to the latter. Similarly, the protectorate rarely takes military action on its own but relies on the protector for its defence. This is distinct from annexation, in that the protector has no formal power to control the internal affairs of the protectorate.

Protectorates differ from League of Nations mandates and their successors, United Nations Trust Territories, whose administration is supervised, in varying degrees, by the international community. A protectorate formally enters into the protection through a bilateral agreement with the protector, while international mandates are stewarded by the world community-representing body, with or without a administering power.

Protected state

A protected state has a form of protection where it continues to retain an "international personality" and enjoys an agreed amount of independence in conducting its foreign policy.

For political and pragmatic reasons, the protection relationship is not usually advertised, but described with euphemisms such as "an independent state with special treaty relations" with the protecting state. A protected state appears on world maps just as any other independent state.

International administration of a state can also be regarded as an internationalized form of protection, where the protector is an international organisation rather than a state.

Colonial protection

Multiple regions—such as the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria, the Colony and Protectorate of Lagos, and similar—were subjects of colonial protection. Conditions of protection are generally much less generous for areas of colonial protection. The protectorate was often reduced to a condition similar to a colony, but with the pre-existing native state continuing as the agent of indirect rule. Occasionally, a protectorate was established by another form of indirect rule: a chartered company, which becomes a state in its European home state (but geographically overseas), allowed to be an independent country with its own foreign policy and generally its own armed forces.

In fact, protectorates were often declared despite no agreement being duly entered into by the state supposedly being protected, or only agreed to by a party of dubious authority in those states. Colonial protectors frequently decided to reshuffle several protectorates into a new, artificial unit without consulting the protectorates, without being mindful of the theoretical duty of a protector to help maintain a protectorate's status and integrity. The Berlin agreement of February 26, 1885, allowed European colonial powers to establish protectorates in Black Africa (the last region to be divided among them) by diplomatic notification, even without actual possession on the ground. This aspect of history is referred to as the Scramble for Africa. A similar case is the formal use of such terms as ''colony'' and ''protectorate'' for an amalgamation—convenient only for the colonizer or protector—of adjacent territories, over which it held () sway by protective or "raw" colonial power.

Amical protection

In amical protection—as of United States of the Ionian Islands by Britain—the terms are often very favourable for the protectorate. The political interest of the protector is frequently moral (a matter of accepted moral obligation, prestige, ideology, internal popularity, or dynastic, historical, or ethnocultural ties). Also, the protector's interest is in countering a rival or enemy power—such as preventing the rival from obtaining or maintaining control of areas of strategic importance. This may involve a very weak protectorate surrendering control of its external relations but may not constitute any real sacrifice, as the protectorate may not have been able to have a similar use of them without the protector's strength.

Amical protection was frequently extended by the great powers to other Christian (generally European) states, and to states of no significant importance. After 1815, non-Christian states (such as the Chinese Qing dynasty) also provided amical protection of other, much weaker states.

In modern times, a form of amical protection can be seen as an important or defining feature of microstates. According to the definition proposed by Dumienski (2014): "microstates are modern protected states, i.e. sovereign states that have been able to unilaterally depute certain attributes of sovereignty to larger powers in exchange for benign protection of their political and economic viability against their geographic or demographic constraints".

Argentina's protectorates

* Liga Federal (1815–1820)
* Peru (1820–1822)
* Riograndense Republic (1836-1845)
* Juliana Republic (1839-1845)
* Gobierno del Cerrito (1843–1851)
* Paraguay (1876)

''De facto''

* Republic of Tucumán (1820–1821)
* National Territory of Misiones (1865–1954)
* National Territory of the Gran Chaco (1874–1884)
* National Territory of the Patagonia (1878–1884)
* National Territory of the Tierra del Fuego, Antarctica and South Atlantic Islands (1884–1991)

Brazil's protectorates

* Republic of Acre (1899-1903)

British Empire's protectorates and protected states

Americas

* (1655–1860; over Central America's Miskito Indian nation)

Europe

* Malta Protectorate (1800–1813); Crown Colony of Malta proclaimed in 1813) (de jure part of the Kingdom of Sicily but under British protection)
* Ionian islands (1815–1864) (a Greek state and amical protectorate of Great Britain between 1815 and 1864)
* British Cyprus (1871–1914) (put under British military administration 1914–22 then proclaimed a Crown Colony 1922–60)

South Asia

* Cis-Sutlej states (1809–1862)
* (1816–1923; protected state)
* Princely states (1857–1947; vassal states)
* (1861–1947)
* Maldive Islands (1887–1965)
* (1879–1919; protected state)
* (1910–1947; protected state)

Western Asia

* British Residency of the Persian Gulf (1822–1971); headquarters based in Bushire, Persia
** , protected state (1880–1971)
** Sheikhdom of Kuwait, protected state (1899–1961)
** Qatar, protected state (1916–1971)
** ; precursor state of the UAE, protected states (1892–1971)
*** Abu Dhabi (1820–1971)
*** Ajman (1820–1971)
*** Dubai (1835–1971)
*** Fujairah (1952–1971)
*** Ras Al Khaimah (1820–1971)
*** Sharjah (1820–1971)
**** Kalba (1936–1951)
*** Umm al-Qaiwain (1820–1971)
** (1892–1971; informal, protected state)
* Aden Protectorate (1872–1963); precursor state of South Yemen
** Eastern Protectorate States (mostly in Haudhramaut); later the Protectorate of South Arabia (1963–1967)
*** Kathiri
*** Mahra
*** Qu'aiti
*** Upper Yafa (consisted of five Sheikhdoms: Al-Busi, Al-Dhubi, Hadrami, Maflahi, and Mawsata)
*** Hawra
*** Irqa
** Western Protectorate States; later the Federation of South Arabia (1959/1962–1967), including Aden Colony
*** Wahidi Sultanates (these included: Balhaf, Azzan, Bir Ali, and Habban)
*** Beihan
*** Dhala and Qutaibi
*** Fadhli
*** Lahej
*** Lower Yafa
*** Audhali
*** Haushabi
*** Upper Aulaqi Sheikhdom
*** Upper Aulaqi Sultanate
*** Lower Aulaqi
*** Alawi
*** Aqrabi
*** Dathina
*** Shaib

Africa

* (1884–1960)
* Bechuanaland Protectorate (1885–1966)
* Protectorate (1889–1964)
* Nyasaland Protectorate (1893–1964) ( British Central Africa Protectorate from 1889 until 1907)
* (1890–1963)
* Gambia Colony and Protectorate* (1894–1965)
* Uganda Protectorate (1894–1962)
* East Africa Protectorate (1895–1920)
* Sierra Leone Protectorate* (1896–1961)
* Nigeria* (1914-1960)
* Northern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914)
* Swaziland (1903–1968)
* Southern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914)
* Northern Territories of the Gold Coast (British protectorate) (1901–1957)
* Sultanate of Egypt (1914–1922)
* Kenya Protectorate* (1920–1963)
* (1922–1936)
* (1924–1964)
*protectorates which existed alongside a colony of the same name

De facto

* Khediviate of Egypt (1882–1913)

Oceania

* (1884–1888)
* Tokelau (1877–1916)
* Cook Islands (1888–1893)
* (1892–1916)
* British Solomon Islands (1893–1978)
* Niue (1900–1901)
* (1900–1970)

East and Southeast Asia

* British North Borneo (1888–1946)
* (1888–1984)
* (1888–1946)
* Federation of Malaya (1948–1957)
** (1895–1946)
*** (1888–1895)
**** Sungai Ujong (1874–1888)
**** Jelebu (1886–1895)1946)
*** (1888–1895)
*** (1874–1895)
*** (1874–1895)
** Unfederated Malay States (1904/09–1946)
*** (1914–1946)
**** Muar (1897–1909)
*** (1909–1946)
**** Kulim (1894–1909)
*** (1909–1946)
*** (1909–1946)
*** (1909–1946)

China's protectorates

* Han dynasty:
** Protectorate of the Western Regions
* Tang dynasty:
** Protectorate General to Pacify the West
** Protectorate General to Pacify the North
** Protectorate General to Pacify the East
* Yuan dynasty:
** Goryeo (1270–1356)
* Qing dynasty:
** Tibet

Dutch Empire's protectorates

Various sultanates in the Dutch East Indies (present day Indonesia):

Sumatra

* Trumon Sultanate (1770?)
* Langkat Sultanate (26 October 1869)
* Deli Sultanate (22 August 1862)
* Asahan Sultanate (27 September 1865)
* Kota Pinang Sultanate (1865 - 1942)
* Siak Sultanate (1 February 1858)
* Indragiri Sultanate (1838?)

Java

* Jogjakarta Sultanate (13 February 1755)
* Mataram Empire and Surakarta Sunanate (26 February 1677)
* Duchy of Mangkunegara (24 February 1757)
* Duchy of Paku Alaman (22 June 1812)

Lesser Sunda Islands

* Sumbawa Sultanate (?)
* Bima Sultanate (8 December 1669)

Borneo

* Pontianak Sultanate (16 August 1819)
* Sambas Sultanate (1819)
* Kubu Sultanate (4 June 1823)
* Landak Sultanate (?)
* Mempawah Sultanate (?)
* Matan Sultanate (?)
* Sanggau Sultanate (?)
* Sekadau Sultanate (?)
* Simpang Sultanate (?)
* Sintang Sultanate (1822)
* Sukadana Sultanate (?)
* Kota Waringin Sultanate (?)
* Kutai Kertanegara Sultanate (8 August 1825)
* Gunung Tabur Sultanate (?)
* Bulungan Sultanate (?)

Celebes

* Gowa Sultanate (1669)
* Bone Sultanate (?)
* Sidenreng Sultanate (?)
* Soppeng Sultanate (?)
* Butung Sultanate (?)
* Muna Sultanate (?)
* Banggai Sultanate (?)

The Moluccas

* Ternate Sultanate (12 October 1676)
* Batjan Sultanate (?)

New Guinea

* Dutch New Guinea:
** Kaimana Sultanate (?)

France's protectorates and protected states

Africa

"Protection" was the formal legal structure under which French colonial forces expanded in Africa between the 1830s and 1900. Almost every pre-existing state that was later part of French West Africa was placed under protectorate status at some point, although direct rule gradually replaced protectorate agreements. Formal ruling structures, or fictive recreations of them, were largely retained—as with the low-level authority figures in the French Cercles—with leaders appointed and removed by French officials.

* Benin traditional states
** Independent of Danhome, under French protectorate, from 1889
** Porto-Novo a French protectorate, 23 February 1863 – 2 January 1865. Cotonou a French Protectorate, 19 May 1868. Porto-Novo French protectorate, 14 April 1882.
* Central African Republic traditional states:
** French protectorate over Dar al-Kuti (1912 Sultanate suppressed by the French), 12 December 1897
** French protectorate over the Sultanate of Bangassou, 1894
* Burkina Faso was since 20 February 1895 a French protectorate named Upper Volta (Haute-Volta)
* Chad: Baghirmi state 20 September 1897 a French protectorate
* Côte d'Ivoire: 10 January 1889 French protectorate of Ivory Coast
* Guinea: 5 August 1849 French protectorate over coastal region; (Riviéres du Sud).
* Niger

HOME


Content is Copyleft
Website design, code, and AI is Copyrighted (c) 2014-2017 by Stephen Payne


Consider donating to Wikimedia



As an Amazon Associate I earn from qualifying purchases