Prison-to-college programs exist around the world, providing opportunities for higher education to current and formerly incarcerated individuals in efforts to increase employment opportunities and reduce post-release

recidivism Recidivism (; from 'recurring', derived from 'again' and 'to fall') is the act of a person repeating an undesirable behavior after they have experienced negative consequences of that behavior, or have been trained to Extinction (psycholo ...

rates. In the United States, programs have expanded in prisons, jails, and juvenile detention centers across the country amid calls for

criminal justice reform Criminal justice reform is the reform of criminal justice systems. Stated reasons for criminal justice reform include reducing crime statistics, racial profiling, police brutality, overcriminalization, mass incarceration, under-reporting, and ...

and improving outcomes for justice-involved individuals. Integral to studies of prison-to-college programs are historical context, geographical location, program model comparisons. Equally important are implications of inequitable political, legislative, and social structures that potentially impact the long-term effectiveness of prison education programs.

History

Education in prison was initially introduced by Superintendent

Zebulon Brockway Zebulon Reed Brockway (April 28, 1827 – October 21, 1920) was a penologist and is sometimes regarded as the "Father of prison reform" and "Father of American parole" in the United States. Early life Brockway was born in Lyme, Connecticut on A ...

in the late 1800s as a way to rehabilitate prisoners at the

Elmira Reformatory Elmira Correctional Facility, also known as "The Hill", is a maximum security state prison located in Chemung County, in the City of Elmira in the US state of New York. It is operated by the New York State Department of Corrections and Commun ...

he ran in New York. Brockway was the first to implement a points-based behavior system that identified low risk offenders at the Monroe County Penitentiary as eligible participants for industrial/trade schools, moral education, and academia programs (Gehring, 1982). While prison education programs have existed in some capacity for decades, there has been a surge of interest and expansion of programs since 2014. This heightened attention corresponds with the declining prison population after hitting peak incarceration rates between 2006 and 2008, as well as growing

bipartisan Bipartisanship, sometimes referred to as nonpartisanship, is a political situation, usually in the context of a two-party system (especially those of the United States and some other western countries), in which opposing Political party, politica ...

support for criminal justice reform. Providing access to education aligned with employers' needs has been viewed as one strategy for facilitating the rehabilitation and reentry of justice-involved individuals. Several factors have contributed to the growth of prison-to-college pipelines. There has been increasing evidence that the denial of Pell Grants for incarcerated students as part of the 1994 Crime Bill negatively impacted

incarceration Imprisonment or incarceration is the restraint of a person's liberty for any cause whatsoever, whether by authority of the government, or by a person acting without such authority. In the latter case it is considered " false imprisonment". Impri ...

, recidivism, and employment trends. Coupled with research showing positive outcomes from correctional education programs, policymakers reconsidered restrictions on Pell grant access. In 2015, the

U.S. Department of Education The United States Department of Education is a United States Cabinet, cabinet-level department of the federal government of the United States, United States government, originating in 1980. The department began operating on May 4, 1980, havin ...

launched the ''Second Chance Pell pilot program'', allowing certain colleges and universities to award Pell grants to qualified incarcerated students. This pilot program was made permanent in 2022 under the Consolidated Appropriations Act. Additionally, technological innovations have enabled greater access to distance learning courses for those behind bars. As of 2022, correctional postsecondary education has expanded to include college-in-prison, prison-to-college pipeline programs, and reentry services on college campuses for returning citizens.

Background

According to research, higher education can significantly contribute to successful reintegration and lower recidivism rates among this population. However, other obstacles make going to college challenging for people involved in the criminal system. Approximately 50% of those behind bars still need a GED or a high school diploma. While some prisoners obtain these qualifications while incarcerated, only some can enroll in college courses. Transitioning to college after release is a significant issue due to systemic impediments, including stigma, financial assistance constraints, and admissions restrictions. Several states, universities, and nonprofit organizations have created focused programs and projects to establish prison-to-college pipelines in recognition of these obstacles. These aim to give prisoners a way to start or finish their postsecondary education when released.

Program models

The availability of government funding facilitated the emergence of legislation, policies, and organizations providing adult second education and literacy programs for incarcerated, formerly incarcerated, and systems-impacted individuals. Diverse program models and partnerships have emerged between institutes of higher education (IHEs) and correctional systems to provide postsecondary educational opportunities. These program models were built on the guiding principles of the

Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act The Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA) is a United States public law that replaced the previous Workforce Investment Act of 1998 (WIA) as the primary federal workforce development legislation to bring about increased coordinatio ...

(WIOA) which focused on economic development through literacy and education. Prison-college pipeline programs ''are education strategies that'' support admitted students to continue pursuing their degrees post-release at partner colleges, which may offer

scholarships A scholarship is a form of financial aid awarded to students for further education. Generally, scholarships are awarded based on a set of criteria such as academic merit, diversity and inclusion, athletic skill, and financial need, research ...

, reentry planning, and supportive services. Program models vary across the nation providing different levels of education ranging from basic adult or remedial education to vocation programs that prepare inmates for employment. Degree-bearing prison-to-college programs are less common because inmates do not receive credit in some instances. Some common approaches include College-in-prison programs where IHE faculty teach courses on-site at correctional facilities that build towards certifications or degrees. Imprisoned college tutors may also facilitate courses. Hybrid programs that offer a mix of in-person and distance learning courses using technology like secure tablet devices which increases flexibility and course options. Prison-college pipeline programs that support admitted students to continue pursuing their degrees post-release at partner colleges, which may offer

scholarship A scholarship is a form of Student financial aid, financial aid awarded to students for further education. Generally, scholarships are awarded based on a set of criteria such as academic merit, Multiculturalism, diversity and inclusion, athleti ...

s, reentry planning, and supportive services. Expanded reentry services for returning college-bound citizens to provide mentoring, counseling, career support, and meet other needs to help persistence and completion. Programs vary substantially in cost, credit offerings, accreditation status, vocational vs. liberal arts focus, and support services provided, contributing to outcome variability. Several states have developed centralized hubs, like the California Community Colleges Chancellor's Office of Correctional Education, to coordinate programs, funding, and policy across campuses. This alliance of community college programs offers credit-bearing classes in 35 prisons throughout California. In 2017, there were more than 5,000 enrolled students. The College after Prison Workshop was created due to research on the educational experiences of women who had completed their sentences. This workshop seeks to lower perceived barriers to continuing higher education after discharge and raise college self-efficacy. However, Lampe-Martin and Beasley found that state-level coordination gaps still inhibit the pipeline for many students.

Cal State LA's Prison B.A. Graduation Initiative

Lim's case study specifically focuses on the transformative effects of Cal State LA's Prison B.A. Graduation Initiative. The study involves 45 students, demonstrating that college education in prison enhances hope, humanity, and transformation, even for those serving life sentences.

Felony disenfranchisement

The politics of restoring voting rights after incarceration presents challenges in the re-enfranchisement process. While 12 states permanently deny voting rights, there are processes for restoration. Understanding these processes is vital for addressing broader issues of social justice and successful prisoner reentry.

Effectiveness

Research on the effectiveness of prison-to-college programs is still emerging, but initial studies are promising. An evaluation by the RAND Corporation found Second Chance Pell recipients had 48% higher odds of securing employment post-release, higher wages, and lower rates of recidivism relative to non-participants. Public surveys have also shown strong bipartisan support for expanding these initiatives to give second chances, especially for juveniles. However, there are inconsistencies in the strength of existing evidence. More data is needed to track long-term outcomes like program completion, post-release enrollment, credential attainment, and persistence in degree programs. One study found that while 91% of surveyed programs offer transitional support, only 4% track student outcomes for more than one academic year post-release, indicating pipeline gaps. There are also equity concerns around disproportionate program availability along racial lines and access for justice-involved students with disabilities. Overall, increased access to high-quality, accredited prison-to-college program shows promise for improving outcomes. However, critical analysis by justice-impacted students argues that broader policy changes are imperative to dismantling the societal inequalities that contribute to mass incarceration in the first place.