Pierre Paul Henri Gaston Doumergue (; 1 August 1863 in

Aigues-Vives, Gard Aigues-Vives (; ) is a commune in the Gard department in southern France. Population Education The Groupe scolaire Jean Macé has ''maternelle'' (preschool/nursery) and ''primaire'' (primary) levels. It opened in 1913. The ''collège'' (ju ...

18 June 1937 in Aigues-Vives) was a French politician who served as

President of France The president of France, officially the president of the French Republic (), is the executive head of state of France, and the commander-in-chief of the French Armed Forces. As the presidency is the supreme magistracy of the country, the po ...

from 1924 to 1931. Tasked with important ministerial portfolios, he was first appointed

President of the Council of Ministers The president of the Council of Ministers (sometimes titled chairman of the Council of Ministers) is the most senior member of the cabinet in the executive branch of government in some countries. Some presidents of the Council of Ministers are ...

in 1913, but was forced to leave power a few months after his appointment. He was elected as

President of the Senate President of the Senate is a title often given to the presiding officer of a senate. It corresponds to the Speaker (politics), speaker in some other assemblies. The senate president often ranks high in a jurisdiction's Order of succession, succes ...

in 1923. At the end of his mandate as President of France, refusing to compete against his eventual successor, Doumergue retired, but chaired a government of national unity during the crisis created by the riots of 6 February 1934.

Early life and career

Protestant origins

Gaston Doumergue came from a

Protestant Protestantism is a branch of Christianity that emphasizes Justification (theology), justification of sinners Sola fide, through faith alone, the teaching that Salvation in Christianity, salvation comes by unmerited Grace in Christianity, divin ...

family. His father, Pierre Doumergue, was a

vigneron A winemaker or vintner is a person engaged in winemaking. They are generally employed by wineries or wine companies, where their work includes: *Cooperating with viticulturists *Monitoring the maturity of grapes to ensure their quality and to de ...

in Aigues-Vives. His mother, Françoise Pattus, raised him in the Protestant faith and the admiration of republican ideas. He was also the great-uncle of playwright

Colette Audry Colette Audry (6 July 1906 – 20 October 1990) was a French novelist, screenwriter, and critic. Audry was born in Orange, Vaucluse. She won the Prix Médicis for the autobiographical novel Derrière la baignoire (Behind the Bathtub). As a screen ...

and filmmaker

Jacqueline Audry Jacqueline Audry (25 September 1908 – 22 June 1977) was a French film director who began making films in post-World War II France and specialised in literary adaptations. She was the first commercially successful female director of post-war ...

. A brilliant student, he claimed to have belonged to the "generation of revenge, animated by a beautiful patriotic ardour", after the defeat of 1870. He studied at the boys' high school in

Nîmes Nîmes ( , ; ; Latin: ''Nemausus'') is the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Gard Departments of France, department in the Occitania (administrative region), Occitanie Regions of France, region of Southern France. Located between the Med ...

, the future .

Judiciary

After a license and a doctorate in law at the School of Law of Paris, he registered in 1885 at the Nîmes bar and participated in the resounding trial of deputy , before entering the judiciary in 1890 as a substitute in

Hanoi Hanoi ( ; ; ) is the Capital city, capital and List of cities in Vietnam, second-most populous city of Vietnam. The name "Hanoi" translates to "inside the river" (Hanoi is bordered by the Red River (Asia), Red and Black River (Asia), Black Riv ...

French Indochina French Indochina (previously spelled as French Indo-China), officially known as the Indochinese Union and after 1941 as the Indochinese Federation, was a group of French dependent territories in Southeast Asia from 1887 to 1954. It was initial ...

. His time there was brief because he returned to France on the death of his father in 1891.

Political career

Beginnings in Parliament (1893–1901)

In 1893, while he was a justice of the peace for the commune of

Aïn El Arbaa Aïn El Arbaa is a municipality in northwestern Algeria. It is in the Aïn Témouchent Province Aïn Témouchent () is a province (''wilaya'') in northwestern Algeria, with a population of 432353 inhabitants in 2019, with a density of 182/squar ...

, he returned to Aigues-Vives in France and presented his candidacy for a partial legislative election in December 1893, intended to fill the seat of , a longtime friend who had just been re-elected in the August 1893 election but died suddenly on 18 November, before the opening of the parliamentary session. Nothing destined him for politics and his grandfather had even refused an appointment as mayor of the village in 1836 because of the modesty of his fortune in a tax system. Encouraged by his mother who followed his career step-by-step, Doumergue was elected as the

Radical Radical (from Latin: ', root) may refer to: Politics and ideology Politics *Classical radicalism, the Radical Movement that began in late 18th century Britain and spread to continental Europe and Latin America in the 19th century *Radical politics ...

deputy for Nîmes with 10,101 votes, beating, in the second round, the mayor of Nîmes, , who obtained only 24 votes. He attended the banquet given in

Lyon Lyon (Franco-Provençal: ''Liyon'') is a city in France. It is located at the confluence of the rivers Rhône and Saône, to the northwest of the French Alps, southeast of Paris, north of Marseille, southwest of Geneva, Switzerland, north ...

by President Sadi Carnot on 24 June 1894, during which the latter was fatally stabbed by the Italian anarchist

Sante Geronimo Caserio Sante Geronimo Caserio (; 8 September 187316 August 1894) was an Italian baker, Anarchism, anarchist, and Propaganda of the deed, propagandist by the deed. He is primarily known for Assassination of Sadi Carnot, assassinating Sadi Carnot, the sit ...

. This event made him realize the seriousness and the danger of the use of power. He was re-elected deputy on 8 May 1898, in the first round of the ballot, with 11,514 votes against the conservative Albert de Nesmes-Desmarets. He was very involved in France's colonial policy and, during his speeches at the podium (which were well-received on the left benches), criticized successive governments for their military interventionism and in particular the occupation of Madagascar. From 1894, he also denounced the "benevolent indifference and not the pronounced sympathy" of public opinion vis-à-vis colonial policy, which masked the looting of conquered territories and the violence of the administration. His secular and republican convictions made him side with

Alfred Dreyfus Alfred Dreyfus (9 October 1859 – 12 July 1935) was a French Army officer best known for his central role in the Dreyfus affair. In 1894, Dreyfus fell victim to a judicial conspiracy that eventually sparked a major political crisis in the Fre ...

. His successive mandates were also an opportunity for him to defend small agricultural producers. His influence within the left grew. He was elected deputy for the third time on 27 April 1902, in the first round. A

freemason Freemasonry (sometimes spelled Free-Masonry) consists of fraternal groups that trace their origins to the medieval guilds of stonemasons. Freemasonry is the oldest secular fraternity in the world and among the oldest still-existing organizati ...

since 1901, he was initiated into the lodge ''L'Écho du Grand Orient'' at the Orient of Nîmes,

Grand Orient de France The Grand Orient de France (, abbr. GODF) is the oldest and largest of several Freemasonic organizations based in France and is the oldest in Continental Europe (as it was formed out of an older Grand Lodge of France in 1773, and briefly absorbe ...

Ministerial portfolios (1902–1910)

Under the presidency of

Émile Loubet Émile François Loubet (; 30 December 183820 December 1929) was the 45th Prime Minister of France from February to December 1892 and later President of France from 1899 to 1906. Trained in law, he became Mayor (France), mayor of Montélimar, w ...

, he was Minister of the Colonies in the

Émile Combes Émile Justin Louis Combes (; 6 September 183525 May 1921) was a French politician and freemason who led the Bloc des gauches, Lefts Bloc (French: ''Bloc des gauches'') cabinet from June 1902 to January 1905. Career Émile Combes was born on 6 ...

government from 1902 to 1905. He was minister without interruption from 1906 to 1910, first for Trade and Industry, where he created the direction of the merchant navy, then for Public Instruction and Fine Arts from 1908, replacing

Aristide Briand Aristide Pierre Henri Briand (; 28 March 18627 March 1932) was a French statesman who served eleven terms as Prime Minister of France during the French Third Republic. He is mainly remembered for his focus on international issues and reconciliat ...

. In this capacity, on 4 June 1908, he delivered a speech on behalf of the government of

Georges Clemenceau Georges Benjamin Clemenceau (28 September 1841 – 24 November 1929) was a French statesman who was Prime Minister of France from 1906 to 1909 and again from 1917 until 1920. A physician turned journalist, he played a central role in the poli ...

during the transfer of

Émile Zola Émile Édouard Charles Antoine Zola (, ; ; 2 April 184029 September 1902) was a French novelist, journalist, playwright, the best-known practitioner of the literary school of Naturalism (literature), naturalism, and an important contributor to ...

's ashes to the

Panthéon The Panthéon (, ), is a monument in the 5th arrondissement of Paris, France. It stands in the Latin Quarter, Paris, Latin Quarter (Quartier latin), atop the , in the centre of the , which was named after it. The edifice was built between 1758 ...

, praising the "heroism" of the writer just as he, on 19 March the previous year, had defended the organization of the transfer ceremony on the Assembly platform, against the anti-Dreyfusards. A fervent supporter of secular schools, he unleashed the most violent school war in the history of France by filing two "secular defense" projects in June 1908 aimed at punishing families who prevented their children from following an education, even an

anti-Catholic Anti-Catholicism is hostility towards Catholics and opposition to the Catholic Church, its clergy, and its adherents. Scholars have identified four categories of anti-Catholicism: constitutional-national, theological, popular and socio-cul ...

one. For this, he received the nickname of "escapee from

St. Bartholomew Bartholomew was one of the twelve apostles of Jesus according to the New Testament. Most scholars today identify Bartholomew as Nathanael, who appears in the Gospel of John (1:45–51; cf. 21:2). New Testament references The name ''Bartholomew ...

" from the

polemic Polemic ( , ) is contentious rhetoric intended to support a specific position by forthright claims and to undermine the opposing position. The practice of such argumentation is called polemics, which are seen in arguments on controversial to ...

ist

Édouard Drumont Édouard Adolphe Drumont (3 May 1844 – 5 February 1917) was a French journalist, author and politician, most often remembered for his antisemitic ideology and animus. He initiated the Antisemitic League of France in 1889, and was the founder ...

. In the field of education, Doumergue also pleaded in favour of the teaching of

Arabic Arabic (, , or , ) is a Central Semitic languages, Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) assigns lang ...

French Algeria French Algeria ( until 1839, then afterwards; unofficially ; ), also known as Colonial Algeria, was the period of History of Algeria, Algerian history when the country was a colony and later an integral part of France. French rule lasted until ...

. He also became vice-president of the

Chamber of Deputies The chamber of deputies is the lower house in many bicameral legislatures and the sole house in some unicameral legislatures. Description Historically, French Chamber of Deputies was the lower house of the French Parliament during the Bourb ...

for a year, from February 1905 to March 1906, between his two ministries. In 1910, he was elected senator for

Gard Gard () is a department in Southern France, located in the region of Occitanie. It had a population of 748,437 as of 2019;Frédéric Desmons Frédéric Desmons (14 October 1832, Brignon – 4 January 1910, Paris) was a French Calvinist pastor and freemason who persuaded the Grand Orient de France in a vote to remove the term of the Great Architect of the Universe from their Constituti ...

. Doumergue was re-elected in 1912 and 1921.

First government (1913–1914)

From 9 December 1913 to 8 June 1914 he was President of the Council and

Minister of Foreign Affairs In many countries, the ministry of foreign affairs (abbreviated as MFA or MOFA) is the highest government department exclusively or primarily responsible for the state's foreign policy and foreign relations, relations, diplomacy, bilateralism, ...

at the request of President

Raymond Poincaré Raymond Nicolas Landry Poincaré (; 20 August 1860 – 15 October 1934) was a French statesman who served as President of France from 1913 to 1920, and three times as Prime Minister of France. He was a conservative leader, primarily committed to ...

, who sought in Doumergue a conciliator capable of forming a cabinet of "republican harmony". From then on, Doumergue strove to reconcile the demands of the Radical party and the interests of the country, in an international horizon that was becoming darker: the statesman took precedence over the partisan. Doumergue needed to defend the law on three-year military service, which he voted through, not without scrutiny, in August 1913: "None of you is expecting us to reopen the debate: that's the law." The proposal to create an income tax by the finance minister,

Joseph Caillaux Joseph-Marie-Auguste Caillaux (; 30 March 1863 – 22 November 1944) was a French politician of the French Third Republic, Third Republic. He was a leader of the French Radical Party and Minister of Finance, but his progressive views in opposi ...

, triggered a controversy among the conservatives, but was finally voted on in July 1914 by a Senate which had been hostile to it for five years. The " Calmette affair", which led to the resignation of the minister, put the government in a difficult position as the tenth legislature ended and a delicate electoral campaign began. Doumergue had, however, warned that he "would in no case stay after the elections". It was time for a policy of rearmament and closer alliances, which Poincaré and Doumergue carried out successfully. However, Doumergue did not lose sight of the international situation, and the chancelleries were constantly kept on alert. The Radical party easily came out on top in the

1914 French legislative election Legislative elections were held in France on 26 April and 10 May 1914, three months before the outbreak of World War I. The Radical Party, a radical and increasingly centre-right party, emerged as the largest party, though, with the outbreak o ...

and this left-wing majority, elected on the theme of peace, caused the President great difficulty in constituting a cabinet that could succeed Doumergue. The latter took advantage of the end of his functions to undertake a trip to

Upper Austria Upper Austria ( ; ; ) is one of the nine States of Austria, states of Austria. Its capital is Linz. Upper Austria borders Germany and the Czech Republic, as well as the other Austrian states of Lower Austria, Styria, and Salzburg (state), Salzbur ...

. On 3 August 1914, the day of

Germany Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its sixteen States of Germany, constituent states have a total popu ...

's declaration of war on France, marking the start of

World War I World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...

, the new president of the council,

René Viviani Jean Raphaël Adrien René Viviani (; 8 November 18637 September 1925) was a French politician of the Third Republic, who served as Prime Minister for the first year of World War I. He was born in Sidi Bel Abbès, in French Algeria. In France ...

, called on Doumergue to replace him at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, during the composition of his short-lived first government. Then, he was minister of the colonies in the successive governments from 26 August 1914 to 19 March 1917. During this mandate, in the middle of the war, he ensured the security of French possessions and set up a secret

agreement Agreement may refer to: Agreements between people and organizations * Gentlemen's agreement, not enforceable by law * Trade agreement, between countries * Consensus (disambiguation), a decision-making process * Contract, enforceable in a court of ...

with

Tsar Tsar (; also spelled ''czar'', ''tzar'', or ''csar''; ; ; sr-Cyrl-Latn, цар, car) is a title historically used by Slavic monarchs. The term is derived from the Latin word '' caesar'', which was intended to mean ''emperor'' in the Euro ...

Nicholas II Nicholas II (Nikolai Alexandrovich Romanov; 186817 July 1918) or Nikolai II was the last reigning Emperor of Russia, King of Congress Poland, and Grand Duke of Finland from 1 November 1894 until his abdication on 15 March 1917. He married ...

Russia Russia, or the Russian Federation, is a country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the list of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the world, and extends across Time in Russia, eleven time zones, sharing Borders ...

which defined the demands that France and Russia would make in future peace negotiations with Germany and

Austria-Hungary Austria-Hungary, also referred to as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Dual Monarchy or the Habsburg Monarchy, was a multi-national constitutional monarchy in Central Europe#Before World War I, Central Europe between 1867 and 1918. A military ...

. However, this treaty became null and void following the

October Revolution The October Revolution, also known as the Great October Socialist Revolution (in Historiography in the Soviet Union, Soviet historiography), October coup, Bolshevik coup, or Bolshevik revolution, was the second of Russian Revolution, two r ...

. In February 1923, he was elected

, replacing

Léon Bourgeois Léon Victor Auguste Bourgeois (; 21 May 185129 September 1925) was a French statesman. His ideas influenced the Radical Party regarding a wide range of issues. He promoted progressive taxation such as progressive income taxes and social insu ...

President of the Republic (1924–1931)

Election to the presidency

His career culminated with his election as

President of the Republic The President of the Republic is a title used for heads of state and/or heads of government in countries having republican form of government. Designation In most cases the president of a republic is elected, either: * by direct universal s ...

on 13 June 1924, for a seven-year term. This accession to the head of state was the result of several successive political events. The preceding 11 and 25 May saw the victory of the

Cartel des Gauches The Cartel of the Left ( ) was the name of the governmental alliance between the Radical-Socialist Party, the socialist French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO), and other smaller left-republican parties that formed on two occasions in ...

in the

legislative elections A general election is an electoral process to choose most or all members of a governing body at the same time. They are distinct from by-elections, which fill individual seats that have become vacant between general elections. General elections ...

, despite a higher number of votes for the right and thanks to an electoral law granting a bonus to alliances. Raymond Poincaré, the President of the Council since 1922, having been disavowed, submitted his resignation to President

Alexandre Millerand Alexandre Millerand (; – ) was a French politician who served as President of France from 1920 to 1924, having previously served as Prime Minister of France earlier in 1920. His participation in Waldeck-Rousseau's cabinet at the start of the ...

. The cartelists claimed power in the "smallest cogs of the administration".

Paul Painlevé Paul Painlevé (; 5 December 1863 – 29 October 1933) was a French mathematician and statesman. He served twice as Prime Minister of France, Prime Minister of the French Third Republic, Third Republic: 12 September – 13 November 1917 and 17 A ...

was brought to the head of the Chamber thanks to the votes of the Cartel also led by

Léon Blum André Léon Blum (; 9 April 1872 – 30 March 1950) was a French socialist politician and three-time Prime Minister of France. As a Jew, he was heavily influenced by the Dreyfus affair of the late 19th century. He was a disciple of socialist l ...

Édouard Herriot Édouard Marie Herriot (; 5 July 1872 – 26 March 1957) was a French Radical politician of the Third Republic who served three times as Prime Minister (1924–1925; 1926; 1932) and twice as President of the Chamber of Deputies. He led the f ...

, and Aristide Briand against the candidate of the right,

André Maginot André Maginot (; ; 17 February 1877 – 7 January 1932) was a French civil servant, soldier and Member of Parliament. He is best known for his advocacy of the string of forts known as the Maginot Line. Early life Maginot was born and grew up ...

. The appointment of

Frédéric François-Marsal Frédéric François-Marsal (; 16 March 1874 – 20 May 1958) was a French politician of the Third Republic, who served briefly as Prime Minister in 1924. Due to his premiership he also served for two days (11–13 June 1924) as the Acting Presi ...

was taken as a provocation and his government lasted only two days. Thus, the left, which forced Alexandre Millerand to resign, then believed it could bring Painlevé to the presidency, but the moderates thwarted his ambitions by massively turning to Gaston Doumergue, who already benefitted from some of the votes on the left. He received 515 votes out of 815 voters, against 309 for Painlevé and 21 for

Zéphyrin Camélinat Zéphyrin Camélinat (variously spelled ''Zéphirin'', ''Zéphyrenne''; 5 March 1840 in Mailly-la-Ville, Yonne – 14 September 1932 in Paris) was a French politician, communard, socialist and communist. Biography Zéphyrin Rémy Camélinat w ...

, the first

communist Communism () is a sociopolitical, philosophical, and economic ideology within the socialist movement, whose goal is the creation of a communist society, a socioeconomic order centered on common ownership of the means of production, di ...

candidate in a presidential election.

Domestic policy

He appointed the mayor of Lyon, Édouard Herriot, as head of government and charged him with establishing a policy of symbolic change to satisfy the electorate. The cartel state was installed, with its members holding a majority of the presidencies of parliamentary committees, as well as the major positions in the administration. The scandal of irregularities at the

Bank of France The Bank of France ( ) is the national central bank for France within the Eurosystem. It was the French central bank between 1800 and 1998, issuing the French franc. It does not translate its name to English, and thus calls itself ''Banque de F ...

overthrew the government and Doumergue resolved to appoint Paul Painlevé as President of the Council in order to unite Radical and socialist voices, playing with designations according to the parliamentary pendulum. On 5 July 1924 Gaston Doumergue proclaimed the official opening of the

1924 Summer Olympics The 1924 Summer Olympics (), officially the Games of the VIII Olympiad () and officially branded as Paris 1924, were an international multi-sport event held in Paris, France. The opening ceremony was held on 5 July, but some competitions had al ...

Paris Paris () is the Capital city, capital and List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, largest city of France. With an estimated population of 2,048,472 residents in January 2025 in an area of more than , Paris is the List of ci ...

during the opening ceremony held at the

Stade olympique de Colombes The Stade Yves-du-Manoir (officially Stade olympique Yves-du-Manoir, also known as the Stade olympique de Colombes, or simply Colombes to the locals) is a rugby, track, and association football stadium in Colombes, near Paris, France. History ...

in the presence of the

President of the International Olympic Committee The president of the International Olympic Committee is head of the executive board that assumes the general overall responsibility for the administration of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the management of its affairs. The IOC E ...

Pierre de Coubertin Charles Pierre de Frédy, Baron de Coubertin (; born Pierre de Frédy; 1 January 1863 – 2 September 1937), also known as Pierre de Coubertin and Baron de Coubertin, was a French educator and historian, co-founder of the International Olympic ...

, the members of the

IOC The International Olympic Committee (IOC; , CIO) is the international, non-governmental, sports governing body of the modern Olympic Games. Founded in 1894 by Pierre de Coubertin and Demetrios Vikelas, it is based in L ...

, the President of the

French Olympic Committee The French National Olympic and Sports Committee (, CNOSF) is the National Olympic Committee of France. It is responsible for France's participation in the Olympic Games, as well as for all of France's overseas departments and territories. Histo ...

, Justinien Clary, the members of the FOC, as well as the 44 participating delegations. Doumergue's seven-year term was marked by the prosperity of France during the interwar period and the ''

Années folles The ''Années folles'' (, "crazy years" in French) was the decade of the 1920s in France. It was coined to describe the social, artistic, and cultural collaborations of the period. The same period is also referred to as the Roaring Twenties ...

'', but also by significant ministerial instability and financial difficulties caused by the fall of the franc. Called to the

Ministry of Finance A ministry of finance is a ministry or other government agency in charge of government finance, fiscal policy, and financial regulation. It is headed by a finance minister, an executive or cabinet position . A ministry of finance's portfoli ...

in July 1926, Poincaré instituted a policy of austerity by bringing the franc back to its real value through a sharp devaluation. He also restored confidence and managed to boost a flagging economy. This neo-liberal policy also generated a period of economic and financial prosperity, at a time when the United States was hit hard by the stock market crash of 1929. Progress in technical industry, particularly in the

steel industry Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon that demonstrates improved mechanical properties compared to the pure form of iron. Due to steel's high elastic modulus, yield strength, fracture strength and low raw material cost, steel is one of the ...

and

automobiles A car, or an automobile, is a motor vehicle with wheels. Most definitions of cars state that they run primarily on roads, Car seat, seat one to eight people, have four wheels, and mainly transport private transport#Personal transport, peopl ...

, contributed to the country's growth. Production capacity thus increased by 45% over the 1920s. To support this development, Doumergue reinforced a centrist policy and instituted workers'

social insurance Social insurance is a form of Social protection, social welfare that provides insurance against economic risks. The insurance may be provided publicly or through the subsidizing of private insurance. In contrast to other forms of Welfare spend ...

. In May 1930, he went to the departments of Algeria, to the lands he had known in the first years of his career, for the commemorations of the centenary of French Algeria, accompanied by a delegation of eight ministers and of several dozen deputies. The following year, a few weeks before the end of his mandate, he commemorated the fiftieth anniversary of the

French protectorate of Tunisia The French protectorate of Tunisia (; '), officially the Regency of Tunis () and commonly referred to as simply French Tunisia, was established in 1881, during the French colonial empire era, and lasted until Tunisian independence in 1956. T ...

Foreign policy

In foreign policy, he declared himself in favour of a policy of firmness vis-à-vis

in the face of resurgent nationalism in parts of Europe, but also in France. He ran into difficulties: the

Allies An alliance is a relationship among people, groups, or states that have joined together for mutual benefit or to achieve some common purpose, whether or not an explicit agreement has been worked out among them. Members of an alliance are calle ...

were unable to agree on Germany. Forced to evacuate the

Ruhr The Ruhr ( ; , also ''Ruhrpott'' ), also referred to as the Ruhr Area, sometimes Ruhr District, Ruhr Region, or Ruhr Valley, is a polycentric urban area in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. With a population density of 1,160/km2 and a populati ...

Saarland Saarland (, ; ) is a state of Germany in the southwest of the country. With an area of and population of 990,509 in 2018, it is the smallest German state in area apart from the city-states of Berlin, Bremen, and Hamburg, and the smallest in ...

, and the

Rhineland The Rhineland ( ; ; ; ) is a loosely defined area of Western Germany along the Rhine, chiefly Middle Rhine, its middle section. It is the main industrial heartland of Germany because of its many factories, and it has historic ties to the Holy ...

between 1925 and 1930, Doumergue's France was also duped by the German Chancellor

Gustav Stresemann Gustav Ernst Stresemann (; 10 May 1878 – 3 October 1929) was a German statesman during the Weimar Republic who served as Chancellor of Germany#First German Republic (Weimar Republic, 1919–1933), chancellor of Germany from August to November 1 ...

despite the signing of the

Locarno Treaties The Locarno Treaties, known collectively as the Locarno Pact, were seven post-World War I agreements negotiated amongst Germany, France, Great Britain, Belgium, Italy, Second Polish Republic, Poland and First Czechoslovak Republic, Czechoslovak ...

. Disagreements with his foreign minister, Aristide Briand, only aggravated the colonial crises in

Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...

and the

Rif The Rif (, ), also called Rif Mountains, is a geographic region in northern Morocco. It is bordered on the north by the Mediterranean Sea and Spain and on the west by the Atlantic Ocean, and is the homeland of the Rifians and the Jebala people ...

. After failed attempts at consultation by the prefect in place in

Morocco Morocco, officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It has coastlines on the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria to Algeria–Morocc ...

, Doumergue decided to send Marshall

Philippe Pétain Henri Philippe Bénoni Omer Joseph Pétain (; 24 April 1856 – 23 July 1951), better known as Marshal Pétain (, ), was a French marshal who commanded the French Army in World War I and later became the head of the Collaboration with Nazi Ger ...

, who quickly won the

Rif War The Rif War (, , ) was an armed conflict fought from 1921 to 1926 between Spain (joined by France in 1924) and the Berber tribes of the mountainous Rif region of northern Morocco. Led by Abd el-Krim, the Riffians at first inflicted several ...

. At the same time, he participated in the inauguration of the

Grand Mosque of Paris The Grand Mosque of Paris (, ; ), also known as the Great Mosque of Paris or simply the Paris Mosque, located in the 5th arrondissement of Paris, is one of the largest mosques in France. It comprises prayer rooms, an outdoor garden, a small lib ...

, with the Moroccan sultan Moulay Youssef, who was on an official visit to France. On this occasion, he became the first French president to quote a

hadith Hadith is the Arabic word for a 'report' or an 'account f an event and refers to the Islamic oral tradition of anecdotes containing the purported words, actions, and the silent approvals of the Islamic prophet Muhammad or his immediate circle ...

: "the best Muslim is the one whose believers have neither hand nor tongue to fear". In French Indochina in the 1920s, the

Vietnamese nationalists Vietnamese may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to Vietnam, a country in Southeast Asia * Vietnamese people, or Kinh people, a Southeast Asian ethnic group native to Vietnam ** Overseas Vietnamese, Vietnamese people living outside Vietna ...

of the VNQDĐ maintained an independence agitation ( assassination of Alfred François Bazin,

Yên Bái mutiny The Yên Bái mutiny () or officially Yên Báy general uprising () was an uprising of Vietnamese soldiers in the Troupes coloniales, French colonial army on 10 February 1930. This took place in collaboration with civilian supporters who were mem ...

, etc.) that colonial authorities repressed with rifle shots and

guillotine A guillotine ( ) is an apparatus designed for effectively carrying out executions by Decapitation, beheading. The device consists of a tall, upright frame with a weighted and angled blade suspended at the top. The condemned person is secur ...

s. In South America, he helped , the director of the '' Compagnie générale aéropostale'', obtain the postal contracts and flyover rights from Brazil and Argentina necessary for the operation of an air transport line.

Particularities of his presidency

Within such an unstable political world, Doumergue strove to support the management of public affairs in leftist values and a conservative guideline. An affable and courteous man, he seduced since the beginning of his political career with his good nature and his accent. After his election to the presidency of the Republic, his simplicity continued to earn him popularity in the public opinion, which is reflected in particular by his nickname of "Gastounet". Moreover, Doumergue's accession to the presidency of the Republic made him the only Protestant head of state known to France since the abjuration of Henry IV, on 25 July 1593. He was also the second unmarried President of the French Republic when he took office, after

Napoleon III Napoleon III (Charles-Louis Napoléon Bonaparte; 20 April 18089 January 1873) was President of France from 1848 to 1852 and then Emperor of the French from 1852 until his deposition in 1870. He was the first president, second emperor, and last ...

. Although an "old bachelor", he was nonetheless, according to historian , "sensitive to feminine charm", but his frequent passing liaisons were only the "Parisian manners of politicians". He maintained a long-term liaison with , an associate professor of the university. During his presidential mandate, he had breakfast with her at his former home at 73

Avenue de Wagram The Avenue de Wagram is a street in the 8th and 17th arrondissements of Paris, extending from the Place de Wagram to the Place Charles de Gaulle (formerly ''Place de l'Étoile'', and the site of the Arc de Triomphe). It is long and wide, a ...

every morning, where he went on foot from the

Élysée Palace The Élysée Palace (, ) is the official residence of the President of France, President of the French Republic in Paris. Completed in 1722, it was built for Louis Henri de La Tour d'Auvergne, a nobleman and army officer who had been appointed g ...

. On 1 June 1931, twelve days before the end of his mandate, he married Gaussal in front of the mayor of the

8th arrondissement of Paris The 8th arrondissement of Paris (''VIIIe arrondissement'') is one of the 20 Arrondissements of Paris, arrondissements of the capital city of France. In spoken French, the arrondissement is colloquially referred to as ''le huitième'' (). The ar ...

, Gaston Drucker, who had come specially to the Élysée, with the secretary-general of the presidency, Jules Michel, as his witness. Doumergue thus became the first President of the Republic to marry during his mandate. His presidential mandate ended on 13 June 1931, and he retired from political life to his wife's home in

Tournefeuille Tournefeuille (; Languedocien: ''Tornafuèlha'') is a commune in the Haute-Garonne department in southwestern France. It is the second-largest suburb of the city of Toulouse, and is adjacent to it on the west side. It is a member of the Toul ...

, in

Haute-Garonne Haute-Garonne (; , ; ''Upper Garonne'') is a department in the southwestern French region of Occitanie. Named after the river Garonne, which flows through the department. Its prefecture and main city is Toulouse, the country's fourth-largest. ...

Return to Council Presidency (1934)

Still popular, he was recalled as president of the council after the bloody events of 6 February 1934, to form a government of national unity where

André Tardieu André Pierre Gabriel Amédée Tardieu (; 22 September 1876 – 15 September 1945) was three times Prime Minister of France (3 November 1929 – 17 February 1930; 2 March – 4 December 1930; 20 February – 10 May 1932) and a dominant figure of ...

and Édouard Herriot rubbed shoulders. After having positioned himself at the centre-left of the political spectrum during his first mandate, he gradually neared the centre-right Independent Radicals during his presidency. His goal was to reform institutions to reduce ministerial instability. This attempt did not succeed; in poor health, it was difficult for him to arbitrate within one of those cabinets in which the greatest hopes are generally placed because they symbolize the unity of the nation, but which are actually made up of ministers from all sides of the political spectrum who do not get along. There was, however, an upturn in public finances, which allowed the price of government bonds to gain ten to twelve points between March and June. He was also weakened by the assassination of

Louis Barthou Jean Louis Barthou (; 25 August 1862 – 9 October 1934) was a French politician of the French Third Republic, Third Republic who served as Prime Minister of France for eight months in 1913. In social policy, his time as prime minister saw the ...

on 9 October, and preferred to resign soon after, on 8 November.

, who died in 1925, said of him: "In a well-organized democracy, Doumergue would be a justice of the peace in the provinces."

Death and state funeral

Doumergue died on 18 June 1937 at his house in Aigues-Vives, at the age of 73. The government organized a

state funeral A state funeral is a public funeral ceremony, observing the strict rules of protocol, held to honour people of national significance. State funerals usually include much pomp and ceremony as well as religious overtones and distinctive elements o ...

for him, which took place in Nîmes. His grave is located in the small cemetery of Aigues-Vives, where his wife Jeanne () was buried alongside him in 1963. A bust of Gaston Doumergue is exhibited in the room of the Presidents of the Republic in the

Musée de la Révolution française The Musée de la Révolution française (Museum of the French Revolution) is a departments of France, departmental museum in the French town of Vizille, south of Grenoble on the Route Napoléon. It is the only museum in the world dedicated to the ...

, recalling that he was the first president to be hosted in this former presidential summer residence.

Doumergue's First Ministry, 9 December 1913 – 9 June 1914

* Gaston Doumergue – President of the Council and

Joseph Noulens Joseph Noulens (29 March 1864 – 9 September 1944) was a French politician and diplomat. Noulens became a member of the Chamber of Deputies in 1903 and served as Minister of War from 1913 to 1914 and then as Minister of Finance from 1914 to 191 ...

–

Minister of War A ministry of defence or defense (see American and British English spelling differences#-ce.2C -se, spelling differences), also known as a department of defence or defense, is the part of a government responsible for matters of defence and Mi ...

René Renoult René Renoult (29 August 1867 in Paris – 30 April 1946 in Paris) was a French Minister and lawyer. Biography Renoult was the son of Étienne and Élisa Geranger, a female day laborer. He studied at the Faculty of Law in Paris and obt ...

–

Minister of the Interior An interior minister (sometimes called a minister of internal affairs or minister of home affairs) is a cabinet official position that is responsible for internal affairs, such as public security, civil registration and identification, emergency ...

–

Minister of Finance A ministry of finance is a ministry or other government agency in charge of government finance, fiscal policy, and financial regulation. It is headed by a finance minister, an executive or cabinet position . A ministry of finance's portfolio ...

Albert Métin Emile Albert Métin (; 28 January 1871 – 16 August 1918) was a French teacher and professor of history and geography, a prolific author and a politician who was twice Minister of Labor and Social Welfare. Life Early years Albert Métin was b ...

– Minister of Labour and Social Security Provisions *

Jean-Baptiste Bienvenu-Martin Jean-Baptiste Bienvenu Martin (22 July 1847 – 10 December 1943) was a French people, French Radical Party (France), Radical leader and cabinet officer. He was born at Saint-Bris-le-Vineux (Yonne), and was educated in the law. Career He h ...

–

Minister of Justice A justice ministry, ministry of justice, or department of justice, is a ministry or other government agency in charge of the administration of justice. The ministry or department is often headed by a minister of justice (minister for justice in a ...

Ernest Monis Antoine Emmanuel Ernest Monis (; 23 May 1846 in Châteauneuf-sur-Charente, in Charente – 25 May 1929 in Mondouzil, in Haute-Garonne) was a French politician of the Third Republic, deputy of Gironde from 1885 to 1889 and then senator of the s ...

– Minister of the Navy *

–

Minister of Public Instruction and Fine Arts Ministry of Public Instruction and the leadership post Minister of Public Instruction may refer to historical names of the following government bodies: * Ministry of National Education (France) * Ministry of Public Education (Italy) ** Minister of ...

* –

Minister of Agriculture An agriculture ministry (also called an agriculture department, agriculture board, agriculture council, or agriculture agency, or ministry of rural development) is a ministry charged with agriculture. The ministry is often headed by a minister f ...

Albert Lebrun Albert François Lebrun (; 29 August 1871 – 6 March 1950) was a French politician who served as President of France from 1932 to 1940. He was the last president of the Third Republic. He was a member of the centre-right Democratic Republica ...

– Minister of Colonies * Fernand David –

Minister of Public Works This list indicates government departments in various countries dedicated to public works or infrastructure. See also * Public works * Ministry or Board of Public Works, the imperial Chinese ministry overseeing public projects from the Tang ...

Louis Malvy Louis-Jean Malvy (; 1 December 1875 – 10 June 1949) was the Interior Minister of France in 1914. Biography Louis-Jean Malvy was born on 1 December 1875 in Figeac. Career Malvy was a member of the Radical Party and served in the Chamber of De ...

– Minister of Commerce, Industry, Posts, and Telegraphs

Changes

* 17 March 1914 –

succeeds Caillaux as Finance Minister.

succeeds Renoult as Minister of the Interior.

Raoul Péret Raoul Adolphe Péret (; 29 November 1870 – 22 July 1942) was a French lawyer and politician. Biography Raoul Péret was born in Châtellerault ( Vienne), son of a magistrate. He followed his father into the law, becoming an advocate at the ...

succeeds Malvy as Minister of Commerce, Industry, Posts, and Telegraphs. * 20 March 1914 – Armand Gauthier succeeds Monis as Minister of the Navy.

Doumergue's Second Ministry, 9 February – 8 November 1934

* Gaston Doumergue – President of the Council *

– Minister of Foreign Affairs *

– Minister of War *

Albert Sarraut Albert-Pierre Sarraut (; 28 July 1872 – 26 November 1962) was a French Radical politician, twice Prime Minister during the Third Republic. Biography Sarraut was born on 28 July 1872 in Bordeaux, Gironde, France. On 14 March 1907 Sarraut ...

– Minister of the Interior *

Louis Germain-Martin Louis Germain-Martin (; 7 November 1872, in Le Puy-en-Velay, Haute-Loire – 4 October 1948, in Paris) was an Independent Radical French politician. He was Minister of Post and Telecommunications in the government of André Tardieu, and later a B ...

– Minister of Finance *

Adrien Marquet Adrien Marquet (; 6 October 1884 – 3 February 1955) was a socialist mayor of Bordeaux who turned to the far right. Career Marquet was born in Bordeaux and became its socialist mayor in 1925. In 1933, he was expelled from the French Section ...

– Minister of Labour *

Henry Chéron Henry Frédéric Chéron (; 11 May 1867 – 14 April 1936) was a French lawyer and politician who became active in local politics in the Calvados (department), Calvados department of Normandy while still a young man, and always maintained his root ...

– Minister of Justice *

François Piétri François Piétri (; 8 August 1882 – 17 August 1966) was a French politician and writer who served as a minister in several governments in the later years of the French Third Republic and was French ambassador to Spain from 1940 to 1944 under ...

– Minister of Military Marine * William Bertrand – Minister of Merchant Marine *

Victor Denain Victor-Léon-Ernest Denain (; 6 November 1880, in Dax – 31 December 1952, in Nice) was a French general, aviator and politician. He was behind the creation of the Salon-de-Provence Air School and the general development of military aviation. Bio ...

– Minister of Air * – Minister of National Education * – Minister of Pensions *

Henri Queuille Henri Queuille (; 31 March 1884 – 15 June 1970) was a French Radical politician prominent in the Third and Fourth Republics. After World War II, he served three times as Prime Minister. Governments First ministry (11 September 1948 – 28 O ...

– Minister of Agriculture *

Pierre Laval Pierre Jean Marie Laval (; 28 June 1883 – 15 October 1945) was a French politician. He served as Prime Minister of France three times: 1931–1932 and 1935–1936 during the Third Republic (France), Third Republic, and 1942–1944 during Vich ...

– Minister of Colonies *

Pierre-Étienne Flandin Pierre-Étienne Flandin (; 12 April 1889 – 13 June 1958) was a French conservative politician of the Third Republic, leader of the Democratic Republican Alliance (ARD), and Prime Minister of France from 1934 to 1935. A military pilot during ...

– Minister of Public Works * Louis Marin – Minister of Public Health and Physical Education *

André Mallarmé André Mallarmé (; 6 August 1877 – 8 April 1956) was a French politician. Mallarmé was born in Bouzaréah, Algeria. He represented the Republican-Socialist Party from 1924 to 1928 and the Independent Radicals from 1928 to 1939 in the Chamber ...

– Minister of Posts, Telegraphs, and Telephones *

Lucien Lamoureux Lucien Lamoureux (; August 3, 1920 – July 16, 1998) was a Canadian politician and Speaker of the House of Commons of Canada from 1966 to 1974. He is the second longest-serving occupant of that office. Lamoureux was born and raised in Ottawa ...

– Minister of Commerce and Industry *

– Minister of State *

– Minister of State Changes * 13 October 1934 –

succeeds Barthou (assassinated 9 October) as Minister of Foreign Affairs.

Paul Marchandeau Paul Henri Marie Joseph Marchandeau, (; Gaillac, Tarn on 10 August 1882 - Paris 15th on 31 May 1968), was a lawyer, journalist and French Radical Socialist politician. He was awarded the ''Croix de guerre'' and the ''Légion d'honneur'' for hi ...

succeeds Sarraut as Minister of the Interior. Louis Rollin succeeds Laval as Minister of Colonies. * 15 October 1934 –

Henry Lémery Henry Lémery (9 December 1874 – 26 April 1972) was a politician from Martinique who served in the French National Assembly from 1914–1919 and the French Senate from 1920–1941. Lémery was briefly Minister of Justice in 1934. During Worl ...

succeeds Chéron as Minister of Justice.

Honours

MCO Order of Saint-Charles - Grand Cross BAR

Grand Cross of the

Order of Saint Charles The Order of Saint Charles (; Monégasque dialect, Monégasque: ''U̍rdine de San Carlu'') is a dynastic order of knighthood established in Monaco on 15 March 1858. Award This order rewards service to the State or Prince. In particular case ...

, 1914 * Grand Cross of the

Legion of Honour The National Order of the Legion of Honour ( ), formerly the Imperial Order of the Legion of Honour (), is the highest and most prestigious French national order of merit, both military and Civil society, civil. Currently consisting of five cl ...

, 1924, by right as Grand Master of the Order * Order of the White Eagle, 4 December 1924 *

Order of the Royal House of Chakri The Most Illustrious Order of the Royal House of Chakri (; ) was founded in 1882 by King Chulalongkorn (Rama V) of the Kingdom of Siam (now Thailand) to commemorate the Bangkok Centennial. The order is awarded to members of the House of Chakri ...

, 30 January 1925 * Division III, 1st Class of the Cross of Liberty (VR III/1), 29 April 1925 * Order of the Golden Fleece ribbon bar

Knight A knight is a person granted an honorary title of a knighthood by a head of state (including the pope) or representative for service to the monarch, the church, or the country, especially in a military capacity. The concept of a knighthood ...

of the

Order of the Golden Fleece The Distinguished Order of the Golden Fleece (, ) is a Catholic order of chivalry founded in 1430 in Brugge by Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, to celebrate his marriage to Isabella of Portugal, Duchess of Burgundy, Isabella of Portugal. T ...

, 1926 *

SMR Order of Saint Marinus - Grand Cross BAR

Knight Grand Cross of the Equestrian Order of San Marino, 16 September 1926 * Order of the Elephant Ribbon bar

of the

Order of the Elephant The Order of the Elephant () is a Denmark, Danish order of chivalry and is Denmark's highest-ranked honour. It has origins in the 15th century, but has officially existed since 1693, and since the establishment of constitutional monarchy in ...

, 12 March 1927 * Commander Grand Cross (''with Chain'') of the

Order of the Three Stars Order of the Three Stars () is the highest civilian order awarded for meritorious service to Latvia. It was established in 1924 in remembrance of the founding of Latvia. Its motto is ''Per aspera ad astra'', meaning "Through hardships towards the ...

(1st class), 6 July 1927 * Order of the Seraphim - Ribbon bar

of the

Order of the Seraphim The Royal Order of the Seraphim (; ''Seraphim'' being a category of angels) is the highest order of chivalry of the Kingdom of Sweden. It was created by Frederick I of Sweden, King Frederick I on 23 February 1748, together with the Order of the ...

, 1 August 1927

Notes

References

Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * * * * *

External links

1927 clip of Gaston Doumergue receiving his honorary degree from Oxford
* {{DEFAULTSORT:Doumergue, Gaston 1863 births 1937 deaths French Calvinist and Reformed Christians Radical Party (France) politicians 20th-century presidents of France 20th-century princes of Andorra Prime ministers of France Ministers of commerce and industry of France Ministers of the overseas of France Members of the 6th Chamber of Deputies of the French Third Republic Members of the 7th Chamber of Deputies of the French Third Republic Members of the 8th Chamber of Deputies of the French Third Republic Members of the 9th Chamber of Deputies of the French Third Republic Members of Parliament for Gard Presidents of the Senate (France) French senators of the Third Republic Senators of Gard French Freemasons French lawyers University of Paris alumni Members of the Académie des sciences morales et politiques Knights of the Golden Fleece of Spain Recipients of the Order of the White Eagle (Poland)

Early life and career

Protestant origins

Judiciary

Political career

Beginnings in Parliament (1893–1901)

Ministerial portfolios (1902–1910)

First government (1913–1914)

President of the Republic (1924–1931)

Election to the presidency

Domestic policy

Foreign policy

Particularities of his presidency

Return to Council Presidency (1934)

Death and state funeral

Doumergue's First Ministry, 9 December 1913 – 9 June 1914

Changes

Doumergue's Second Ministry, 9 February – 8 November 1934

Honours

See also

Notes

References

Bibliography

Further reading

External links