Pounamu is a term for several types of hard and durable stone found in the

South Island The South Island ( , 'the waters of Pounamu, Greenstone') is the largest of the three major islands of New Zealand by surface area, the others being the smaller but more populous North Island and Stewart Island. It is bordered to the north by ...

of New Zealand. They are highly valued in New Zealand, and

carving Carving is the act of using tools to shape something from a material by scraping away portions of that material. The technique can be applied to any material that is solid enough to hold a form even when pieces have been removed from it, and y ...

s made from pounamu play an important role in

Māori culture Māori culture () is the customs, cultural practices, and beliefs of the Māori people of New Zealand. It originated from, and is still part of, Polynesians, Eastern Polynesian culture. Māori culture forms a distinctive part of Culture of New ...

Name

The

Māori Māori or Maori can refer to: Relating to the Māori people * Māori people of New Zealand, or members of that group * Māori language, the language of the Māori people of New Zealand * Māori culture * Cook Islanders, the Māori people of the Co ...

word is derived from ''namu'', an archaic word that describes blue-green (or 'grue') cognate with Tahitian ''ninamu''. , also used in

New Zealand English New Zealand English (NZE) is the variant of the English language spoken and written by most English-speaking New Zealanders. Its language code in ISO and Internet standards is en-NZ. It is the first language of the majority of the populati ...

, in itself refers to two main types of green stone valued for carving: nephrite jade, classified by Māori as , , , and other names depending on colour; and translucent

bowenite Bowenite is a hard, compact variety of the serpentinite species antigorite (Mg3(OH)O4Si2O5). Classed as a semi-precious gemstone, it has been used for tools, weapons and jewellery by the Māori in New Zealand, and for jewellery by Fabergé. Depo ...

, a type of serpentine, known as . The collective term pounamu is preferred, as the other names in common use are misleading, such as New Zealand jade (not all pounamu is jade) and greenstone (a generic term used for unrelated stone from many countries). Pounamu is only found in New Zealand, whereas much of the carved "greenstone" sold in souvenir shops is jade sourced overseas. The

classification of pounamu is by colour and appearance; the shade of green is matched against a colour found in nature, and some hues contain flecks of red or brown. * pounamu takes its name from the native freshwater fish '' Galaxias maculatus,'' one of the common whitebait species in New Zealand, and is pearly-white or grey-green in colour. It varies from translucent to opaque. Īnanga was the variety most prized by Māori for ornaments and (short handled clubs). * pounamu is highly translucent and has a vivid shade of light green with no spots or flaws. Its name is the Māori word for a person of high rank, and is the rarest variety of pounamu. It was the preferred stone for making toki poutangata (ceremonial adzes) owned by rangatira (Māori chiefs). * pounamu comes shades of rich dark green, often with small dark flecks or inclusions, and is named after the similarly-coloured leaves of the kawakawa tree ('' Piper excelsum''). It is the most common variety of pounamu, and the most used in the manufacture of jewellery today. One of its main sources is the Taramakau River on the West Coast. ** is a rare type of kawakawa with small reddish dots or streaks; its name means "

weka The weka, also known as the Māori hen or woodhen (''Gallirallus australis'') is a flightless bird species of the rail family. It is endemic to New Zealand. Some authorities consider it as the only extant member of the genus '' Gallirallus''. ...

blood" after the flightless bird '' Gallirallus australis''. * pounamu is olive green and speckled with dark spots, reminiscent of the markings of three species of native freshwater fishes in the genus ''Galaxias'' that go by that name. *''Flower jade'' or ''picture jade'' is pounamu with cream, yellow, or brown inclusions, from oxidising or weathering in the surface of the stone. Cracks or fissures in the stone can allow iron impurities to enter, and carvers can then make use of the resulting patterns. Flower jade is best known from the Marsden district near Hokitika. * pounamu is translucent like glass, but in a wide range of shades. When viewed against the light it resembles a clear drop of water. The name means "the tears that come from great sorrow", and refers to a Māori legend of a lamenting woman whose tears turned to stone.

Chemistry

Jade is formed from two different stones:

jadeite Jadeite is a pyroxene mineral with composition Na Al Si2 O6. It is hard (Mohs hardness of about 6.5 to 7.0), very tough, and dense, with a specific gravity of about 3.4. It is found in a wide range of colors, but is most often found in shades ...

and

nephrite Nephrite is a variety of the calcium, magnesium, and iron-rich amphibole minerals tremolite or actinolite ( aggregates of which also make up one form of asbestos). The chemical formula for nephrite is Ca2( Mg, Fe)5 Si8 O22(O H)2. It is on ...

. Jadeite (sodium aluminium silicate) has interlocking granular crystals, while nephrite (calcium magnesium silicate) has crystals that are interwoven and fibrous. Jadeite is mostly found in

Myanmar Myanmar, officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar; and also referred to as Burma (the official English name until 1989), is a country in northwest Southeast Asia. It is the largest country by area in Mainland Southeast Asia and has ...

, while nephrite is found in

Europe Europe is a continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere. It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and Asia to the east ...

British Columbia British Columbia is the westernmost Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Canada. Situated in the Pacific Northwest between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains, the province has a diverse geography, with rugged landscapes that ...

Australia Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising mainland Australia, the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and list of islands of Australia, numerous smaller isl ...

, and

New Zealand New Zealand () is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island () and the South Island ()—and List of islands of New Zealand, over 600 smaller islands. It is the List of isla ...

. New Zealand nephrite contains varying amounts of iron, which account for its range of shades, richness of green, and translucency.

Geological formation and location

Pounamu is generally found in rivers in specific parts of the

as nondescript boulders and stones. Pounamu has been formed in New Zealand in four main locations; the West Coast,

Fiordland Fiordland (, "The Pit of Tattooing", and also translated as "the Shadowlands"), is a non-administrative geographical region of New Zealand in the south-western corner of the South Island, comprising the western third of Southland. Most of F ...

, western Southland and the

Nelson Nelson may refer to: Arts and entertainment * ''Nelson'' (1918 film), a historical film directed by Maurice Elvey * ''Nelson'' (1926 film), a historical film directed by Walter Summers * ''Nelson'' (opera), an opera by Lennox Berkeley to a lib ...

district. It is typically recovered from rivers and beaches where it has been transported to after being eroded from the mountains. The group of rocks where pounamu comes from are called

ophiolites An ophiolite is a section of Earth's oceanic crust and the underlying upper mantle (Earth), upper mantle that has been uplifted and exposed, and often emplaced onto continental crustal rocks. The Greek word ὄφις, ''ophis'' (''snake'') is ...

. Ophiolites are slices of the deep ocean crust and part of the mantle. When these deep mantle rocks (

serpentinite Serpentinite is a metamorphic rock composed predominantly of serpentine group minerals formed by serpentinization of mafic or ultramafic rocks. The ancient origin of the name is uncertain; it may be from the similarity of its texture or color ...

) and crustal rock (

mafic A mafic mineral or rock is a silicate mineral or igneous rock rich in magnesium and iron. Most mafic minerals are dark in color, and common rock-forming mafic minerals include olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, and biotite. Common mafic rocks include ...

igneous rocks Igneous rock ( ), or magmatic rock, is one of the three main Rock (geology)#Classification, rock types, the others being sedimentary rock, sedimentary and metamorphic rock, metamorphic. Igneous rocks are formed through the cooling and solidifi ...

) are heated up (

metamorphosed Metamorphic rocks arise from the transformation of existing rock to new types of rock in a process called metamorphism. The original rock (protolith) is subjected to temperatures greater than and, often, elevated pressure of or more, causi ...

) together, pounamu can be formed at their contact. The

Dun Mountain Ophiolite Belt Dun most commonly refers to: *Dun gene, which produces a brownish-gray color (dun) in horses and other Equidae *Dun (fortification), an ancient or medieval fort Dun or DUN may also refer to: Places Scotland * Dun, Angus, a civil parish in S ...

has been metamorphosed in western Southland and pounamu from this belt is found along the eastern and northern edge of Fiordland. The Anita Bay

Dunite Dunite (), also known as olivinite (not to be confused with the mineral olivenite), is an intrusive igneous rock of ultramafic composition and with phaneritic (coarse-grained) texture. The mineral assemblage is greater than 90% olivine, wit ...

near

Milford Sound Milford Sound (, officially gazetted as Milford Sound / Piopiotahi) is a fiord in the south west of New Zealand's South Island within Fiordland National Park, Piopiotahi (Milford Sound) Marine Reserve, and the Te Wahipounamu World Heritage ...

is a small but highly prized source of pounamu. In the Southern Alps, the Pounamu Ultramafic Belt in the

Haast Schist The Haast Schist, which contains both the Alpine and Otago Schist, is a metamorphic unit in the South Island of New Zealand. It extends from Central Otago, along the eastern side of the Alpine Fault to Cook Strait. There are also isolated outcrop ...

occurs as isolated pods which are eroded and found on West Coast rivers and beaches. One source of īnanga pounamu at the head of

Lake Wakatipu Lake Wakatipu () is an inland lake (finger lake) in the South Island of New Zealand. It is in the southwest corner of the Otago region, near its boundary with Southland, New Zealand, Southland. ''Lake Wakatipu'' comes from the original Māori l ...

is possibly the only jade mining site in the world with Government protection.

Significance to Māori

Pounamu plays a very important role in

and is a

taonga ''Taonga'' or ''taoka'' (in South Island Māori) is a Māori-language word that refers to a treasured possession in Māori culture. It lacks a direct translation into English, making its use in the Treaty of Waitangi significant. The current ...

(treasure). It is and has been an important part of trade between the South Island

iwi Iwi () are the largest social units in New Zealand Māori society. In Māori, roughly means or , and is often translated as "tribe". The word is both singular and plural in the Māori language, and is typically pluralised as such in English. ...

(tribe)

Ngāi Tahu Ngāi Tahu, or Kāi Tahu, is the principal Māori people, Māori (tribe) of the South Island. Its (tribal area) is the largest in New Zealand, and extends from the White Bluffs / Te Parinui o Whiti (southeast of Blenheim, New Zealand, Blenhe ...

and other iwi.

Adze An adze () or adz is an ancient and versatile cutting tool similar to an axe but with the cutting edge perpendicular to the handle rather than parallel. Adzes have been used since the Stone Age. They are used for smoothing or carving wood in ha ...

blades made from pounamu were desired for carving of wood, and even with the arrival of metal tools pounamu tools were used. These were often reworked into (stylised human figures worn as pendants) and other taonga when they were no longer useful for carving wood. After the arrival of Ngāi Tahu in the South Island in the middle of the 18th century, the production of pounamu increased. Pounamu crafting and trade was important to the economy of Ngāi Tahu. Pounamu taonga increase in

mana Mana may refer to: Religion and mythology * Mana (Oceanian cultures), the spiritual life force energy or healing power that permeates the universe in Melanesian and Polynesian mythology * Mana (food), archaic name for manna, an edible substance m ...

(spiritual power or prestige) as they pass from one generation to another. Pounamu is believed to absorb the mana of its past owners, and some heirloom pieces are named after a former owner in memory of their position and authority. The most prized taonga are those with known histories going back many generations: these are believed to have their own mana and were often given as gifts to seal important agreements. Pounamu taonga include tools such as (

adze An adze () or adz is an ancient and versatile cutting tool similar to an axe but with the cutting edge perpendicular to the handle rather than parallel. Adzes have been used since the Stone Age. They are used for smoothing or carving wood in ha ...

s), (

chisel A chisel is a hand tool with a characteristic Wedge, wedge-shaped cutting edge on the end of its blade. A chisel is useful for carving or cutting a hard material such as woodworking, wood, lapidary, stone, or metalworking, metal. Using a chi ...

s), (gouges), (knives), scrapers, awls, hammer stones, and drill points. Hunting tools include (

fishing hook A fish hook or fishhook, formerly also called an angle (from Old English ''angol'' and Proto-Germanic ''*angulaz''), is a hook used to catch fish either by piercing and embedding onto the inside of the fish mouth (angling) or, more rarely, by i ...

s) and lures, spear points, and (leg rings for fastening captive birds); weapons such as ; and ornaments such as pendants (, and ), ear pendants ( and ), and cloak pins. Functional pounamu tools were widely worn for both practical and ornamental reasons, and continued to be worn as purely ornamental pendants () even after they were no longer used as tools. Waewae Pounamu MRD 02

Pounamu is found only in the

of New Zealand, known in Māori as ('The and ofGreenstone Water') or ('The Place of Greenstone'). In 1997

the Crown The Crown is a political concept used in Commonwealth realms. Depending on the context used, it generally refers to the entirety of the State (polity), state (or in federal realms, the relevant level of government in that state), the executive ...

handed back the ownership of all naturally occurring pounamu to the South Island iwi Ngāi Tahu (or Kāi Tahu), as part of the Ngāi Tahu Claims Settlement. Pounamu was of such value to Māori that peace was cemented by the exchange of valuable carved heirlooms, creating what was figuratively called a (door of greenstone), as in the saying (Let conclude a peace treaty that may never be broken, for ever and ever).

Pounamu trails

There were a dozen major pounamu trails used in the trading of pounamu and many more minor routes. Parties of 6 to 12 are thought to have used the tracks in summer, particularly via

Harper Pass Harper Pass (elevation ), previously known as Hurunui Pass or sometimes Taramakau Pass, is an alpine pass between Canterbury, New Zealand, Canterbury and the West Coast, New Zealand, West Coast in New Zealand. It was the most important crossing ...

Modern use

Jewellery and other decorative items made from gold and pounamu were particularly fashionable in New Zealand in the

Victorian Victorian or Victorians may refer to: 19th century * Victorian era, British history during Queen Victoria's 19th-century reign ** Victorian architecture ** Victorian house ** Victorian decorative arts ** Victorian fashion ** Victorian literatur ...

and

Edwardian In the United Kingdom, the Edwardian era was a period in the early 20th century that spanned the reign of King Edward VII from 1901 to 1910. It is commonly extended to the start of the First World War in 1914, during the early reign of King Ge ...

years in the late 19th and early 20th century. It continues to be popular among New Zealanders and is often given as gifts. In 2011, the New Zealand Prime Minister

John Key Sir John Phillip Key (born 9 August 1961) is a New Zealand retired politician who served as the 38th prime minister of New Zealand from 2008 to 2016 and as leader of the National Party from 2006 to 2016. Following his father's death when ...

presented the President of the United States,

Barack Obama Barack Hussein Obama II (born August 4, 1961) is an American politician who was the 44th president of the United States from 2009 to 2017. A member of the Democratic Party, he was the first African American president in American history. O ...

with a (a type of Māori weapon) created from pounamu carved by New Zealand artist Aden Hoglund. An exhibition curated by

Te Papa The Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa is New Zealand's national museum and is located in Wellington. Usually known as Te Papa (Māori language, Māori for 'Waka huia, the treasure box'), it opened in 1998 after the merging of the Nation ...

in 2007 called showcased 200 pounamu items from their collections and linked New Zealand and China through both the geographical location of nephrite and also the high level of artistry achieved in ancient China and then thousands of years later amongst Māori. The exhibition marked 40 years of diplomatic relations between countries when it toured to five venues in China in 2013. In the 2016 animated movie '' Moana'' the central premise is to return the stolen heart of Te Fiti which is manifest in a pounamu stone amulet.

Fossicking In Australia, New Zealand and Cornwall, fossicking is prospecting, especially when carried out as a recreational activity. This can be for gold, precious stones, fossils, etc. by sifting through a prospective area. In Australian English and New Z ...

for Pounamu is a cultural activity in New Zealand and allowed on designated areas of the West Coast of the South Island () and is limited to what can be carried unaided; fossicking elsewhere in the tribal area is illegal, while nephrite jade can be sourced legally and freely from Marlborough and Nelson. In 2009 David Anthony Saxton and his son Morgan David Saxton were sentenced to two and a half years imprisonment for stealing greenstone, with a helicopter, from the southern West Coast.

Gallery

File:Hinepare.jpg, , a woman of the tribe. She is wearing a pounamu around her neck, and one earring and one

shark tooth Sharks continually shed their teeth; some Carcharhiniformes shed approximately 35,000 teeth in a lifetime, replacing those that fall out. There are four basic types of shark teeth: dense flattened, needle-like, pointed lower with triangular up ...

earring File:Ear pendant (peka peka), Maori people, Honolulu Museum of Art, 3351.JPG, Ear pendant (), Māori people, pounamu and red

sealing wax Sealing wax is a wax material of a seal (emblem), seal which, after melting, hardens quickly (to paper, parchment, ribbons and wire, and other material), forming a bond that is difficult to break without noticeable tampering. Wax is used to verify ...

File:Kataore, Mere pounamu (42cm x 12cm).jpg, , a () named after a chief killed by in the 1830s. Gifted by to

Sir George Grey Sir George Grey, KCB (14 April 1812 – 19 September 1898) was a British soldier, explorer, colonial administrator and writer. He served in a succession of governing positions: Governor of South Australia, twice Governor of New Zealand, Gov ...

. File:Wahanui Reihana Te Huatare, by Gottfried Lindauer.jpg, A portrait of carrying a and wearing a made of pounamu File:Rangi Topeora, by Gottfried Lindauer.jpg, A portrait of , wearing numerous pounamu items. File:Tiki-IMG 4264.jpg, Nephrite File:Earring (kuru), Maori people, Honolulu Museum of Art, 3357.JPG, A (straight earring). are similar, but with curved ends, and are also used as teething aids. File:Parrot leg ring (poria-kaka), Maori people, Honolulu Museum of Art, 3353.JPG, A , a bird leg ring used to fasten decoy birds used in hunting.

References

External links

Photos of 40 Pounamu varieties with accompanying informationPounamu
Te Rūnanga o Ngāi Tahu
"Pounamu – jade or greenstone"
in Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand
Examples of pounamu taonga (Māori treasures)
from the collection of the

Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa The Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa is New Zealand's national museum and is located in Wellington. Usually known as Te Papa ( Māori for ' the treasure box'), it opened in 1998 after the merging of the National Museum of New Zealand ...

''First over the Alps: The epic of Raureka and the Greenstone'' by James Cowan (eText)
* * {{cite journal , url=http://rsnz.natlib.govt.nz/volume/rsnz_65/rsnz_65_00_002100.html , title=Geological Investigation of the Nephrites, Serpentines, and Related "Greenstones" used by the Maoris of Otago and South Canterbury , author=F. J. Turner,

Otago University The University of Otago () is a public research collegiate university based in Dunedin, Otago, New Zealand. Founded in 1869, Otago is New Zealand's oldest university and one of the oldest universities in Oceania. The university was created by ...

, journal=

Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New Zealand The ''Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New Zealand'' was a scientific journal and magazine published by the Royal Society of New Zealand. Before 1933 the society was called the New Zealand Institute, and the journal's name ...

, year=1936 , volume=65 , pages=187–210 Gemstones Geology of New Zealand Hardstone carving Māori culture Māori words and phrases Minerals Natural resources in Oceania