Polonnaruwa Period
   HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

The Polonnaruwa period was a period in the history of
Sri Lanka Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, also known historically as Ceylon, is an island country in South Asia. It lies in the Indian Ocean, southwest of the Bay of Bengal, separated from the Indian subcontinent, ...
from 1017, after the
Chola conquest of Anuradhapura The Chola conquest of Anuradhapura was a military invasion of the Kingdom of Anuradhapura by the Chola Empire. The period of Chola entrenchment in entire Sri Lanka lasted in total about three-quarters of a century, from roughly 993 CE (the ...
and when the center of administration was moved to
Polonnaruwa Poḷonnaruwa, (; ) also referred as Pulathisipura and Vijayarajapura in History of Sri Lanka, ancient times, is the main town of Polonnaruwa District in North Central Province, Sri Lanka. The modern town of Polonnaruwa is also known as New Town, ...
, to the end of the
Kingdom of Polonnaruwa The Kingdom of Polonnaruwa () was the Sinhalese monarchy, Sinhalese kingdom that expanded across the island of Sri Lanka from 1070 until 1232. The kingdom started expanding its overseas influence during the reign of Parakramabahu the Great. I ...
in 1232. The
Kingdom of Polonnaruwa The Kingdom of Polonnaruwa () was the Sinhalese monarchy, Sinhalese kingdom that expanded across the island of Sri Lanka from 1070 until 1232. The kingdom started expanding its overseas influence during the reign of Parakramabahu the Great. I ...
was the second major Sinhalese kingdom of Sri Lanka. It lasted from 1055 under
Vijayabahu I Vijayabahu the Great (born ''Prince Keerthi'') () (ruled 1055–1110), also known as Vijayabahu I, was a medieval king of Sri Lanka. Born to a royal bloodline, Vijayabahu grew up under Chola occupation. He assumed rulership of the Ruhuna principa ...
until 1212 under the rule of Lilavati. The Kingdom of Polonnaruwa came after the Anuradhapura Kingdom, which was invaded by
Chola The Chola Empire, which is often referred to as the Imperial Cholas, was a medieval thalassocratic empire based in southern India that was ruled by the Chola dynasty, and comprised overseas dominions, protectorates and spheres of influence ...
forces under
Rajaraja I Rajaraja I ( Middle Tamil: ''Rājarāja Cōḻaṉ''; Classical Sanskrit: ''Rājarāja Śōḷa''; 3 November 947 – January/February 1014), also known as Rajaraja the Great, was a Chola emperor who reigned from 985 to 1014. He was known fo ...
. It also followed the
Kingdom of Ruhuna The Principality of Ruhuna ( Sinhala: , ), also referred to as the Kingdom of Ruhuna, is a region of present-day Southern and Eastern Sri Lanka. It was the center of a flourishing civilisation and the cultural and economic centres of ancient Sri L ...
, in which the Sinhalese Kings ruled during Chola occupation.


Overview

Periodization of Sri Lanka history:


Political history


Chola conquest (1017–1070)

A partial consolidation of Chola power in Rajarata had succeeded the initial season of plunder. With the intention to transform Chola encampments into more permanent military enclaves, Saivite temples were constructed in Polonnaruva and in the emporium of Mahatittha. Taxation was also instituted, especially on merchants and artisans by the Cholas. In 1014 Rajaraja I died and was succeeded by his son Rajendra Chola I, perhaps the most aggressive king of his line. Chola raids were launched southward from Rajarata into Rohana. By his fifth year, Rajendra claimed to have completely conquered the island. The whole of Anuradhapura including the south-eastern province of Rohana were incorporated into the Chola Empire. As per the Sinhalese chronicle '' Mahavamsa'', the conquest of Anuradhapura was completed in the 36th year of the reign of the Sinhalese monarch Mahinda V, i.e. about 1017–18. But the south of the island, which lacked large an prosperous settlements to tempt long-term Chola occupation, was never really consolidated by the Chola. Thus, under Rajendra, Chola predatory expansion in Sri Lanka began to reach a point of diminishing returns. According to the Culavamsa and Karandai plates, Rajendra Chola led a large army into Anuradhapura and captured Mahinda V's crown, queen, daughter, vast amount of wealth and the king himself whom he took as a prisoner to India, where he eventually died in exile in 1029. After the death of Mahinda V the
Sinhalese monarchy The Sinhalese monarchy ( Sinhala සිංහල රාජාණ්ඩුව) has its origins in the settlement of North Indian Indo-Aryan immigrants to the island of Sri Lanka. The Landing of Vijay as described in the traditional chronicles o ...
continued to rule from Rohana until the Sinhalese kingdom was re-established in the north by Vijayabāhu I. Mahinda V was succeeded by his son Kassapa VI (1029–1040).


Polonnaruwa period (1055–1232)

Following a long war of liberation Vijayabāhu I successfully expelled the Cholas out of Sri Lanka as Chola determination began to gradually falter. Vijayabāhu possessed strategic advantages, even without a unified "national" force behind him. A prolonged war of attrition was of greater benefit to the Sinhalese than to the Cholas. After the accession of Virarajendra Chola (1063–1069) to the Chola throne, the Cholas were increasingly on the defensive, not only in Sri Lanka, but also in peninsular India, where they were hard-pressed by the attacks of the Chalukyas from the Deccan. Vijayabāhu launched a successful two-pronged attack upon Anuradhapura and Polonnaruva, when he could finally establish a firm base in southern Sri Lanka. Anuradhapura quickly fell and Polonnaruva was captured after a prolonged siege of the isolated Chola forces. Virarajendra Chola was forced to dispatch an expedition from the mainland to recapture the settlements in the north and carry the attack back into Rohana, in order to stave off total defeat. What had begun as a profitable incursion and occupation was now deteriorating into desperate attempts to retain a foothold in the north. After a further series of indecisive clashes the occupation finally ended in the withdrawal of the Cholas. By 1070 when Sinhalese sovereignty was restored under Vijayabāhu I, he had reunited the country for the first time in over a century. Vijayabāhu I (1055–1110), descended from, or at least claimed to be descended from the House of Lambakanna II. He crowned himself in 1055 at Anuradhapura but continued to have his capital at Polonnaruwa as it was more central and made the task of controlling the turbulent province of Rohana much easier. Aside from leading the prolonged resistance to Chola rule Vijayabāhu I proved to be outstanding in administration and economic regeneration after the war and embarked on the rehabilitation of the island's irrigation network and the resuscitation of Buddhism in the country. Buddhism had suffered severely in the country during the Chola rule, where precedence was given to Saivite Hinduism. The influence of Hinduism on religion and society during this period also saw a hardening of
caste A caste is a Essentialism, fixed social group into which an individual is born within a particular system of social stratification: a caste system. Within such a system, individuals are expected to marry exclusively within the same caste (en ...
attitudes in the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa. Economic, social structure, art and architecture of the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa was a continuation and development of that of the Anuradhapura period. Internal and external trade made the kingdom more prosperous than just relying on its primarily agricultural economy. Seafaring crafts were built in Sri Lanka and were known to have sailed as far as
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
, some may have even been used as troop transport ships to
Burma Myanmar, officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar; and also referred to as Burma (the official English name until 1989), is a country in northwest Southeast Asia. It is the largest country by area in Mainland Southeast Asia and ha ...
. However those used in external trade were mostly of foreign construction. The island's importance as an important center of international trade attracted many foreign merchants, the most prominent of which were descendants of Arab traders. The south of India also hosted settlements of these Arab merchants, and they would become a dominant influence on the country's external trade, but it was by no means a monopoly. Upon Vijayabāhu I's death a succession dispute jeopardized the recovery from the Chola conquest. His successors proved unable to consolidate power plunging the kingdom into a period of civil war, from which Parākramabāhu I (1153–1186), a closely related royal emerged. Parākramabāhu I established control over the island and secured his recognition as Vijayabāhu's heir by obtaining the Tooth and bowl relics of the Buddha, which by now had become essential to the legitimacy of royal authority in Sri Lanka. By the time of the Polonnaruwa period the Sinhalese has centuries of experience in irrigation technology behind them and so the Polonnaruwa kings, especially Parākramabāhu the Great, made distinguished contributions of their own at honing these techniques to cope with the special requirements of the immense irrigation projects at the time. Sri Lanka's irrigation network was extensively expanded during the reign of Parākramabāhu the Great. He built 1470 reservoirs – the highest number by any ruler in Sri Lanka's history – repaired 165 dams, 3910 canals, 163 major reservoirs, and 2376 mini-reservoirs. His most famous construction is the
Parakrama Samudra Parakrama Samudra (or King Parakrama's sea or the Sea of King Parakrama) is a shallow reservoir ( wewa), consisting of five separate wewa (reservoirs) (thopa, dumbutulu, erabadu, bhu, kalahagala tanks) connected by narrow channels in Polonnaruwa, ...
, the largest irrigation project of medieval Sri Lanka. Having re-established the political unification of the island, Parākramabāhu continued Vijayabāhu policy in keeping a tight check on separatist tendencies within the island, especially in Rohana where particularism was a deeply ingrained political tradition. Parākramabāhu faced a formidable rebellion in 1160 as Rohana did not accept its loss of autonomy lightly. A rebellion in 1168 in Rajarata also manifested. Both were put down with great severity and all vestiges of its former autonomy purposefully eliminated. Particularism was now much less tolerated than it was during the Anuradhapura period. This new over-centralization of authority in Polonnaruwa would however work against the Sinhalese in the future and the country would eventually pay dearly as a result. Parākramabāhu's reign is memorable for two major campaigns – in the south of India as part of a Pandyan war of succession, and a punitive strike against the kings of Ramanna (
Myanmar Myanmar, officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar; and also referred to as Burma (the official English name until 1989), is a country in northwest Southeast Asia. It is the largest country by area in Mainland Southeast Asia and has ...
) for various perceived insults to Sri Lanka. Parākramabāhu I was the last of the great ancient Sri Lankan kings. His reign is considered as a time when Sri Lanka was at the height of its power. Parākramabāhu had no sons, which complicated the problem of succession upon his death. Amid the
succession crisis A succession crisis is a crisis that arises when an order of succession fails, for example when a monarch dies without an indisputable heir. It may result in a war of succession. Examples include (see List of wars of succession): * The Wars of Th ...
a scion of a foreign dynasty, Niśśaṅka Malla established his claims as a Prince of Kalinga, claiming to be chosen and trained for the succession by Parākramabāhu himself. He was also either the son-in-law or nephew of Parākramabāhu. Niśśaṅka Malla (1187–1196) was the first monarch of the House of Kalinga and the only Polonnaruwa monarch to rule over the whole island after Parākramabāhu. His reign gave the country a brief decade of order and stability before the speedy and catastrophic break-up of the hydraulic civilisations of the dry zone. With his death there was a renewal of political dissension, now complicated by dynastic disputes. Though he and his predecessors Vijayabāhu and Parākramabāhu achieved much in state building. The conspicuous lack of restraint, especially that of Parākramabāhu, in combination with an ambitious and venturesome foreign policy, and an expensive diversion of state resources towards public works projects, sapped the strength of the country and contributed to its sudden and complete collapse. The House of Kalinga would maintain itself in power, but only with the support of an influential faction within the country. Their survival owed much to the inability of the factions opposing them to come up with an aspirant to the throne with a politically viable claim, or sufficient durability once installed in power, therefore the House of Kalinga's hold on the throne was inherently precarious. On three occasions, the queen of Parākramabāhu, Lilāvatī, was raised to the throne out of desperation. The factional struggle and political instability attracted the attention of South Indian adventures bent on plunder, culminating in the devastating campaign of pillage under Māgha of Kalinga (1215–1236), claiming the inheritance of the kingdom through his kinsman who reigned before. Māgha, a bigoted Hindu, persecuted Buddhists, despoiling the temples and giving away lands of the Sinhalese to his followers. His priorities in ruling were to extract as much as possible from the land and overturn as many of the traditions of Rajarata as possible. His reign saw the massive migration of the
Sinhalese people The Sinhalese people (), also known as the Sinhalese or Sinhala people, are an Indo-Aryan peoples, Indo-Aryan ethno-linguistic group native to the island of Sri Lanka. They are the largest ethnic group in Sri Lanka, constituting about 75% of ...
to the south and west of Sri Lanka, and into the mountainous interior, in a bid to escape his power. Māgha's rule of 21 years and its aftermath are a watershed in the history of the island, creating a new political order. After his death in 1255 Polonnaruwa ceased to be the capital, Sri Lanka gradually decayed in power and from then on there were two, or sometimes three rulers existing concurrently.
Parakramabahu VI of Kotte Parâkramabâhu VI (, ) was the first king of Kotte, ruling from 1410 until his death in 1467. He is the last great king in Sri Lanka who managed to unite the island under one flag. His rule is famous for the renaissance in Sinhalese literature ...
(1411–1466) would be the only other Sinhalese monarch to establish control over the whole island after this period. The Rajarata, the traditional location of the Sinhalese kingdom and Rohana, the previously autonomous subregion were abandoned. Two new centers of political authority emerged as a result of the fall of the Polonnaruwa kingdom. In the face of repeated South Indian invasions the Sinhalese monarchy and people retreated into the hills of the wet zone, further and further south, seeking primarily security. The capital was abandoned and moved to Dambadeniya by Vijayabāhu III establishing the Dambadeniya era of the Sinhalese kingdom. A second poilitical center emerged in the north of the island where Tamil settlers from previous Indian incursions occupied the Jaffna Peninsula and the Vanni. Many Tamil members of invading armies, mercenaries, joined them rather than returning to India with their compatriots. By the 13th century the Tamils too withdrew from the Vanni almost entirely into the Jaffna peninsula where an independent Tamil kingdom had been established.


See also

* Mahavamsa * Architecture of ancient Sri Lanka *
Sinhala Kingdom The Sinhala kingdom or Sinhalese kingdom refers to the successive Sinhalese kingdoms that existed in what is today Sri Lanka. The Sinhalese kingdoms are kingdoms known by the city at which its administrative centre was located. These are in chron ...
* List of Sinhalese monarchs


Notes


References


Citations


Bibliography


Primary sources

* * * * *


Secondary sources

;Histories * * * * * * * * * * ;Other Books * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ;Journals * * * * * * * * * * * * {{History of Asia Polonnaruwa period Ancient Sri Lanka