The pituitary gland or hypophysis is an
endocrine gland
The endocrine system is a network of glands and organs located throughout the body. Along with the nervous system, it makes the neuroendocrine system, which controls and regulates many of the body's functions. Endocrine glands are ductless gland ...
in
vertebrate
Vertebrates () are animals with a vertebral column (backbone or spine), and a cranium, or skull. The vertebral column surrounds and protects the spinal cord, while the cranium protects the brain.
The vertebrates make up the subphylum Vertebra ...
s. In
human
Humans (''Homo sapiens'') or modern humans are the most common and widespread species of primate, and the last surviving species of the genus ''Homo''. They are Hominidae, great apes characterized by their Prehistory of nakedness and clothing ...
s, the pituitary gland is located at the base of the
brain
The brain is an organ (biology), organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals. It consists of nervous tissue and is typically located in the head (cephalization), usually near organs for ...
, protruding off the bottom of the
hypothalamus
The hypothalamus (: hypothalami; ) is a small part of the vertebrate brain that contains a number of nucleus (neuroanatomy), nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions is to link the nervous system to the endocrin ...
. The pituitary gland and the
hypothalamus
The hypothalamus (: hypothalami; ) is a small part of the vertebrate brain that contains a number of nucleus (neuroanatomy), nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions is to link the nervous system to the endocrin ...
control much of the body's
endocrine system
The endocrine system is a messenger system in an organism comprising feedback loops of hormones that are released by internal glands directly into the circulatory system and that target and regulate distant Organ (biology), organs. In vertebrat ...
.
It is seated in part of the
sella turcica
The sella turcica (Latin for 'Turkish saddle') is a saddle-shaped depression in the body of the sphenoid bone of the human skull and of the skulls of other hominids including chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans. It serves as a cephalometric la ...
a
depression in the
sphenoid bone
The sphenoid bone is an unpaired bone of the neurocranium. It is situated in the middle of the skull towards the front, in front of the basilar part of occipital bone, basilar part of the occipital bone. The sphenoid bone is one of the seven bon ...
, known as the
hypophyseal fossa
The sella turcica (Latin for 'Turkish saddle') is a saddle-shaped depression in the body of the sphenoid bone of the human skull and of the skulls of other hominids including chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans. It serves as a cephalometric la ...
. The human pituitary gland is
oval shaped, about 1 cm in diameter, in weight on average, and about the size of a
kidney bean
The kidney bean is a variety of the common bean (''Phaseolus vulgaris'') named for its resemblance to a human kidney.
Classification
There are different classifications of kidney beans, such as:
*Red kidney bean (also known as common kidney ...
.
[ Digital version.]
There are two main lobes of the pituitary, an
anterior lobe
The anterior lobe of cerebellum is one of the lobes of the cerebellum responsible for mediating unconscious proprioception. Inputs into the anterior lobe of the cerebellum are mainly from the spinal cord. It is sometimes equated to the "paleocere ...
, and a
posterior lobe
The cerebellum (: cerebella or cerebellums; Latin for 'little brain') is a major feature of the hindbrain of all vertebrates. Although usually smaller than the cerebrum, in some animals such as the mormyrid fishes it may be as large as it or eve ...
joined and separated by a small
intermediate lobe
The pars intermedia is one of the three parts of the anterior pituitary. It is a section of tissue sometimes called a middle or intermediate lobe, between the pars distalis, and the posterior pituitary. It is a small region that is largely with ...
. The anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) is the glandular part that produces and secretes several
hormone
A hormone (from the Ancient Greek, Greek participle , "setting in motion") is a class of cell signaling, signaling molecules in multicellular organisms that are sent to distant organs or tissues by complex biological processes to regulate physio ...
s. The posterior lobe (neurohypophysis) secretes
neurohypophysial hormone
The neurohypophysial hormones form a family of structurally and functionally related peptide hormones. Their representatives in humans are oxytocin and vasopressin. They are named after the location of their release into the blood, the neurohy ...
s produced in the
hypothalamus
The hypothalamus (: hypothalami; ) is a small part of the vertebrate brain that contains a number of nucleus (neuroanatomy), nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions is to link the nervous system to the endocrin ...
. Both lobes have different origins and they are both controlled by the hypothalamus.
Hormone
A hormone (from the Ancient Greek, Greek participle , "setting in motion") is a class of cell signaling, signaling molecules in multicellular organisms that are sent to distant organs or tissues by complex biological processes to regulate physio ...
s secreted from the pituitary gland help to control
growth
Growth may refer to:
Biology
*Auxology, the study of all aspects of human physical growth
*Bacterial growth
*Cell growth
*Growth hormone, a peptide hormone that stimulates growth
*Human development (biology)
*Plant growth
*Secondary growth, growt ...
,
blood pressure
Blood pressure (BP) is the pressure of Circulatory system, circulating blood against the walls of blood vessels. Most of this pressure results from the heart pumping blood through the circulatory system. When used without qualification, the term ...
, energy management, all functions of the
sex organ
A sex organ, also known as a reproductive organ, is a part of an organism that is involved in sexual reproduction. Sex organs constitute the primary sex characteristics of an organism. Sex organs are responsible for producing and transporting ...
s,
thyroid gland
The thyroid, or thyroid gland, is an endocrine gland in vertebrates. In humans, it is a butterfly-shaped gland located in the neck below the Adam's apple. It consists of two connected lobes. The lower two thirds of the lobes are connected by ...
,
metabolism
Metabolism (, from ''metabolē'', "change") is the set of life-sustaining chemical reactions in organisms. The three main functions of metabolism are: the conversion of the energy in food to energy available to run cellular processes; the co ...
, as well as some aspects of
pregnancy
Pregnancy is the time during which one or more offspring gestation, gestates inside a woman's uterus. A multiple birth, multiple pregnancy involves more than one offspring, such as with twins.
Conception (biology), Conception usually occurs ...
,
childbirth
Childbirth, also known as labour, parturition and delivery, is the completion of pregnancy, where one or more Fetus, fetuses exits the Womb, internal environment of the mother via vaginal delivery or caesarean section and becomes a newborn to ...
,
breastfeeding
Breastfeeding, also known as nursing, is the process where breast milk is fed to a child. Infants may suck the milk directly from the breast, or milk may be extracted with a Breast pump, pump and then fed to the infant. The World Health Orga ...
,
water/salt concentration at the
kidney
In humans, the kidneys are two reddish-brown bean-shaped blood-filtering organ (anatomy), organs that are a multilobar, multipapillary form of mammalian kidneys, usually without signs of external lobulation. They are located on the left and rig ...
s, temperature regulation, and pain relief.
Structure
In humans, the pituitary gland rests upon the
hypophyseal fossa
The sella turcica (Latin for 'Turkish saddle') is a saddle-shaped depression in the body of the sphenoid bone of the human skull and of the skulls of other hominids including chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans. It serves as a cephalometric la ...
of the
sphenoid bone
The sphenoid bone is an unpaired bone of the neurocranium. It is situated in the middle of the skull towards the front, in front of the basilar part of occipital bone, basilar part of the occipital bone. The sphenoid bone is one of the seven bon ...
, in the center of the
middle cranial fossa
The middle cranial fossa is formed by the sphenoid bones, and the temporal bones. It lodges the temporal lobes, and the pituitary gland. It is deeper than the anterior cranial fossa, is narrow medially and widens laterally to the sides of the skull ...
. It sits in a protective bony enclosure called the
sella turcica
The sella turcica (Latin for 'Turkish saddle') is a saddle-shaped depression in the body of the sphenoid bone of the human skull and of the skulls of other hominids including chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans. It serves as a cephalometric la ...
, covered by a fold of
dura mater known as the
diaphragma sellae
The diaphragma sellae or sellar diaphragm is a small, circular sheet of dura mater forming an (incomplete) roof over the sella turcica and covering the pituitary gland lodged therein. The diaphragma sellae forms a central opening to accommodate the ...
.
The pituitary gland is composed of the
anterior pituitary
The anterior pituitary (also called the adenohypophysis or pars anterior) is a major Organ (anatomy), organ of the endocrine system. The anterior pituitary is the glandular, Anatomical terms of location#Usage in human anatomy, anterior lobe that t ...
, the
posterior pituitary
The posterior pituitary (or neurohypophysis) is the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland which is part of the endocrine system. Unlike the anterior pituitary, the posterior pituitary is not glandular, but largely a collection of axonal projec ...
, and an
intermediate lobe
The pars intermedia is one of the three parts of the anterior pituitary. It is a section of tissue sometimes called a middle or intermediate lobe, between the pars distalis, and the posterior pituitary. It is a small region that is largely with ...
that joins them. The intermediate lobe is
avascular
Blood vessels are the tubular structures of a circulatory system that transport blood throughout many animals’ bodies. Blood vessels transport blood cells, nutrients, and oxygen to most of the tissues of a body. They also take waste and ...
and almost absent in humans, but in many other animals, it is distinct. The intermediate lobe in rats and mice have been extensively studied for the development of the pituitary and its functions.
In all animals, the fleshy, glandular anterior pituitary is distinct from the neural composition of the posterior pituitary, which is an extension of the
hypothalamus
The hypothalamus (: hypothalami; ) is a small part of the vertebrate brain that contains a number of nucleus (neuroanatomy), nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions is to link the nervous system to the endocrin ...
.
The height of the pituitary gland ranges from 5.3 to 7.0 mm. The volume of the pituitary gland ranges from 200 to 440 mm
3.
Its most common shape, found in 46% of people is flat, it is convex in 31.2% and concave in 22.8%.
Anterior
The anterior pituitary lobe (adenohypophysis) arises from an
evagination Endodermic evagination relates to the inner germ layers of cells of the very early embryo, from which is formed the lining of the digestive tract, of other internal organs, and of certain glands, implies the extension of a layer of body tissue to f ...
of the oral
ectoderm
The ectoderm is one of the three primary germ layers formed in early embryonic development. It is the outermost layer, and is superficial to the mesoderm (the middle layer) and endoderm (the innermost layer). It emerges and originates from the o ...
(
Rathke's pouch
In embryogenesis, Rathke's pouch is an evagination at the roof of the developing mouth in front of the buccopharyngeal membrane. It gives rise to the anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis), a part of the endocrine system.
Development
Rathke's pou ...
). This contrasts with the
posterior pituitary
The posterior pituitary (or neurohypophysis) is the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland which is part of the endocrine system. Unlike the anterior pituitary, the posterior pituitary is not glandular, but largely a collection of axonal projec ...
, which originates from
neuroectoderm
Neuroectoderm (or neural ectoderm or neural tube epithelium) consists of cells derived from the ectoderm. Formation of the neuroectoderm is the first step in the development of the nervous system. The neuroectoderm receives bone morphogenetic pro ...
.
Endocrine cell
The endocrine system is a messenger system in an organism comprising feedback loops of hormones that are released by internal glands directly into the circulatory system and that target and regulate distant organs. In vertebrates, the hypothal ...
s of the anterior pituitary are controlled by regulatory hormones released by
parvocellular neurosecretory cell
Parvocellular neurosecretory cells are small neurons that produce hypothalamic releasing and inhibiting hormones. The cell bodies of these neurons are located in various nuclei of the hypothalamus or in closely related areas of the basal brain, m ...
s in the hypothalamic capillaries leading to infundibular blood vessels, which in turn lead to a second capillary bed in the anterior pituitary. This vascular relationship constitutes the
hypophyseal portal system
The hypophyseal portal system is a system of blood vessels in the microcirculation at the base of the brain, connecting the hypothalamus with the anterior pituitary. Its main function is to quickly transport and exchange hormones between the hyp ...
. Diffusing out of the second capillary bed, the hypothalamic
releasing hormone
Releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones are hormones whose main purpose is to control the release of other hormones, either by stimulating or inhibiting their release. They are also called liberins () and statins () (respectively), or releasing ...
s then bind to anterior pituitary endocrine cells, upregulating or downregulating their release of hormones.
The anterior lobe of the pituitary can be divided into the
pars tuberalis
The anterior pituitary (also called the adenohypophysis or pars anterior) is a major organ of the endocrine system. The anterior pituitary is the glandular, anterior lobe that together with the posterior pituitary (or neurohypophysis) makes up t ...
(pars infundibularis) and
pars distalis (pars glandularis) that constitutes ~80% of the gland. The
pars intermedia
The pars intermedia is one of the three parts of the anterior pituitary. It is a section of tissue sometimes called a middle or intermediate lobe, between the pars distalis, and the posterior pituitary. It is a small region that is largely with ...
(the intermediate lobe) lies between the pars distalis and the pars tuberalis, and is rudimentary in the human, although in other species it is more developed.
It develops from a depression in the dorsal wall of the
pharynx
The pharynx (: pharynges) is the part of the throat behind the human mouth, mouth and nasal cavity, and above the esophagus and trachea (the tubes going down to the stomach and the lungs respectively). It is found in vertebrates and invertebrates ...
(stomal part) known as Rathke's pouch.
The
anterior pituitary
The anterior pituitary (also called the adenohypophysis or pars anterior) is a major Organ (anatomy), organ of the endocrine system. The anterior pituitary is the glandular, Anatomical terms of location#Usage in human anatomy, anterior lobe that t ...
contains several different types of cells that synthesize and secrete hormones. Usually there is one type of cell for each major hormone formed in the anterior pituitary. At least five different cell types can be differentiated using various
stain
A stain is a discoloration that can be clearly distinguished from the surface, material, or medium it is found upon. They are caused by the chemical or physical interaction of two dissimilar materials. Accidental staining may make materials app ...
s.
Posterior
The
posterior pituitary
The posterior pituitary (or neurohypophysis) is the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland which is part of the endocrine system. Unlike the anterior pituitary, the posterior pituitary is not glandular, but largely a collection of axonal projec ...
consists of the posterior lobe and the
pituitary stalk
The pituitary stalk, also known as the infundibular stalk, infundibulum, or Fenderson's funnel, is the connection between the hypothalamus and the posterior pituitary, the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland. The floor of the third ventricle is ...
(infundibulum) that connects it to the hypothalamus. It develops as an extension of the hypothalamus, from the floor of the
third ventricle
The third ventricle is one of the four connected cerebral ventricles of the ventricular system within the mammalian brain. It is a slit-like cavity formed in the diencephalon between the two thalami, in the midline between the right and lef ...
. The posterior pituitary hormones are synthesized by cell bodies in the
hypothalamus
The hypothalamus (: hypothalami; ) is a small part of the vertebrate brain that contains a number of nucleus (neuroanatomy), nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions is to link the nervous system to the endocrin ...
. The
magnocellular neurosecretory cell
Magnocellular neurosecretory cells are large neuroendocrine cells within the supraoptic nucleus and paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus. They are also found in smaller numbers in accessory cell groups between these two nuclei, the larges ...
s, of the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei located in the hypothalamus, project axons down the infundibulum to terminals in the posterior pituitary. This simple arrangement differs sharply from that of the adjacent anterior pituitary, which does not develop from the hypothalamus.
The release of pituitary hormones by both the anterior and posterior lobes is under the control of the
hypothalamus
The hypothalamus (: hypothalami; ) is a small part of the vertebrate brain that contains a number of nucleus (neuroanatomy), nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions is to link the nervous system to the endocrin ...
, albeit in different ways.
Function

The anterior pituitary regulates several physiological processes by secreting hormones. This includes stress (by secreting
ACTH
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH; also adrenocorticotropin, corticotropin) is a polypeptide tropic hormone produced by and secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. It is also used as a medication and diagnostic agent. ACTH is an important ...
), growth (by secreting
GH), reproduction (by secreting
FSH and
LH), metabolism rate (by secreting
TSH) and
lactation
Lactation describes the secretion of milk from the mammary glands and the period of time that a mother lactates to feed her young. The process naturally occurs with all sexually mature female mammals, although it may predate mammals. The process ...
(by secreting
prolactin
Prolactin (PRL), also known as lactotropin and mammotropin, is a protein best known for its role in enabling mammals to produce milk. It is influential in over 300 separate processes in various vertebrates, including humans. Prolactin is secr ...
). The
intermediate lobe
The pars intermedia is one of the three parts of the anterior pituitary. It is a section of tissue sometimes called a middle or intermediate lobe, between the pars distalis, and the posterior pituitary. It is a small region that is largely with ...
synthesizes and secretes
melanocyte-stimulating hormone
The melanocyte-stimulating hormones, known collectively as MSH, also known as melanotropins or intermedins, are a family of peptide hormones and neuropeptides consisting of α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH), β-melanocyte-stimulating ...
. The
posterior pituitary
The posterior pituitary (or neurohypophysis) is the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland which is part of the endocrine system. Unlike the anterior pituitary, the posterior pituitary is not glandular, but largely a collection of axonal projec ...
(or neurohypophysis) is a lobe of the gland that is functionally connected to the
hypothalamus
The hypothalamus (: hypothalami; ) is a small part of the vertebrate brain that contains a number of nucleus (neuroanatomy), nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions is to link the nervous system to the endocrin ...
by the
median eminence
The median eminence is generally defined as the portion of the ventral hypothalamus from which the portal vessels arise. The median eminence is a small swelling on the tuber cinereum, posterior to and on top of the pituitary stalk; it lies in th ...
via a small tube called the
pituitary stalk
The pituitary stalk, also known as the infundibular stalk, infundibulum, or Fenderson's funnel, is the connection between the hypothalamus and the posterior pituitary, the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland. The floor of the third ventricle is ...
(also called the infundibular stalk or the infundibulum). It regulates hydroelectrolytic stability (by secreting
ADH), uterine contraction during labor and human attachment (by secreting
oxytocin
Oxytocin is a peptide hormone and neuropeptide normally produced in the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary. Present in animals since early stages of evolution, in humans it plays roles in behavior that include Human bonding, ...
).
Anterior
The anterior pituitary synthesizes and secretes hormones. All releasing hormones (-RH) referred to can also be referred to as releasing factors (-RF).
Somatotropes:
*
Growth hormone
Growth hormone (GH) or somatotropin, also known as human growth hormone (hGH or HGH) in its human form, is a peptide hormone that stimulates growth, cell reproduction, and cell regeneration in humans and other animals. It is thus important in ...
(GH), also known as somatotropin, is released under the influence of hypothalamic
growth hormone-releasing hormone
Growth may refer to:
Biology
* Auxology, the study of all aspects of human physical growth
* Bacterial growth
*Cell growth
*Growth hormone, a peptide hormone that stimulates growth
*Human development (biology)
*Plant growth
*Secondary growth, gro ...
(GHRH), and is
inhibited by hypothalamic
somatostatin
Somatostatin, also known as growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH) or by #Nomenclature, several other names, is a peptide hormone that regulates the endocrine system and affects neurotransmission and cell proliferation via interaction with G ...
.
Corticotropes:
* Cleaved from the precursor
proopiomelanocortin
Pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) is a precursor polypeptide with 241 amino acid residues. POMC is Protein biosynthesis, synthesized in Corticotropic cell, corticotrophs of the anterior pituitary from the 267-amino-acid-long Precursor polypeptide, pol ...
protein, and include
adrenocorticotropic hormone
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH; also adrenocorticotropin, corticotropin) is a polypeptide tropic hormone produced by and secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. It is also used as a medication and diagnostic agent. ACTH is an important ...
(ACTH), and
beta-endorphin, and
melanocyte-stimulating hormone
The melanocyte-stimulating hormones, known collectively as MSH, also known as melanotropins or intermedins, are a family of peptide hormones and neuropeptides consisting of α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH), β-melanocyte-stimulating ...
are released.
Thyrotropes:
*
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) is released under the influence of
hypothalamic
The hypothalamus (: hypothalami; ) is a small part of the vertebrate brain that contains a number of nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions is to link the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituit ...
thyrotropin-releasing hormone
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) is a hypophysiotropic hormone produced by neurons in the hypothalamus that stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) as well as prolactin from the anterior pituitary.
TRH has been used ...
(TRH) and is inhibited by somatostatin.
Gonadotropes:
*
Luteinizing hormone
Luteinizing hormone (LH, also known as luteinising hormone, lutropin and sometimes lutrophin) is a hormone produced by gonadotropic cells in the anterior pituitary gland. The production of LH is regulated by gonadotropin-releasing hormone (G ...
(LH). stimulated by Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
*
Follicle-stimulating hormone
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is a gonadotropin, a glycoprotein polypeptide hormone. FSH is synthesized and secreted by the gonadotropic cells of the anterior pituitary gland and regulates the development, growth, puberty, pubertal maturat ...
(FSH), also stimulated by Gonadotropin-releasing Hormone (GnRH), and also by Activin
Lactotropes:
*
Prolactin
Prolactin (PRL), also known as lactotropin and mammotropin, is a protein best known for its role in enabling mammals to produce milk. It is influential in over 300 separate processes in various vertebrates, including humans. Prolactin is secr ...
(PRL), whose release is inconsistently stimulated by hypothalamic TRH, oxytocin, vasopressin, vasoactive intestinal peptide, angiotensin II, neuropeptide Y, galanin, substance P, bombesin-like peptides (gastrin-releasing peptide, neuromedin B and C), and neurotensin, and inhibited by hypothalamic dopamine.
These hormones are released from the anterior pituitary under the influence of the
hypothalamus
The hypothalamus (: hypothalami; ) is a small part of the vertebrate brain that contains a number of nucleus (neuroanatomy), nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions is to link the nervous system to the endocrin ...
. Hypothalamic hormones are secreted to the anterior lobe by way of a special
capillary
A capillary is a small blood vessel, from 5 to 10 micrometres in diameter, and is part of the microcirculation system. Capillaries are microvessels and the smallest blood vessels in the body. They are composed of only the tunica intima (the inn ...
system, called the
hypothalamic-hypophysial portal system.
There is also a non-endocrine cell population called
folliculostellate cells.
Posterior
The posterior pituitary stores and secretes (but does not synthesize) the following important endocrine hormones:
Magnocellular neurons:
*
Antidiuretic hormone
Mammalian vasopressin, also called antidiuretic hormone (ADH), arginine vasopressin (AVP) or argipressin, is a hormone synthesized from the ''AVP'' gene as a peptide prohormone in neurons in the hypothalamus, and is converted to AVP. It ...
(ADH, also known as
vasopressin
Mammalian vasopressin, also called antidiuretic hormone (ADH), arginine vasopressin (AVP) or argipressin, is a hormone synthesized from the ''AVP'' gene as a peptide prohormone in neurons in the hypothalamus, and is converted to AVP. It ...
and arginine vasopressin AVP), the majority of which is released from the
supraoptic nucleus
The supraoptic nucleus (SON) is a nucleus of magnocellular neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus of the mammalian brain. The nucleus is situated at the base of the brain, adjacent to the optic chiasm. In humans, the SON contains about 3,000 ...
in the
hypothalamus
The hypothalamus (: hypothalami; ) is a small part of the vertebrate brain that contains a number of nucleus (neuroanatomy), nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions is to link the nervous system to the endocrin ...
.
*
Oxytocin
Oxytocin is a peptide hormone and neuropeptide normally produced in the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary. Present in animals since early stages of evolution, in humans it plays roles in behavior that include Human bonding, ...
, most of which is released from the
paraventricular nucleus
The paraventricular nucleus (PVN) is a nucleus in the hypothalamus, located next to the third ventricle. Many of its neurons project to the posterior pituitary where they secrete oxytocin, and a smaller amount of vasopressin. Other secretions ...
in the
hypothalamus
The hypothalamus (: hypothalami; ) is a small part of the vertebrate brain that contains a number of nucleus (neuroanatomy), nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions is to link the nervous system to the endocrin ...
. Oxytocin is one of the few hormones to create a
positive feedback
Positive feedback (exacerbating feedback, self-reinforcing feedback) is a process that occurs in a feedback loop where the outcome of a process reinforces the inciting process to build momentum. As such, these forces can exacerbate the effects ...
loop. For example, uterine contractions stimulate the release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary, which, in turn, increases uterine contractions. This positive feedback loop continues throughout labour.
Hormones
Hormones secreted from the pituitary gland help control the following body processes:
*
Growth
Growth may refer to:
Biology
*Auxology, the study of all aspects of human physical growth
*Bacterial growth
*Cell growth
*Growth hormone, a peptide hormone that stimulates growth
*Human development (biology)
*Plant growth
*Secondary growth, growt ...
(GH)
*
Blood pressure
Blood pressure (BP) is the pressure of Circulatory system, circulating blood against the walls of blood vessels. Most of this pressure results from the heart pumping blood through the circulatory system. When used without qualification, the term ...
* Some aspects of
pregnancy
Pregnancy is the time during which one or more offspring gestation, gestates inside a woman's uterus. A multiple birth, multiple pregnancy involves more than one offspring, such as with twins.
Conception (biology), Conception usually occurs ...
and
childbirth
Childbirth, also known as labour, parturition and delivery, is the completion of pregnancy, where one or more Fetus, fetuses exits the Womb, internal environment of the mother via vaginal delivery or caesarean section and becomes a newborn to ...
including stimulation of
uterine contractions
Uterine contractions are muscle contractions of the uterine smooth muscle that can occur at various intensities in both the non-pregnant and pregnant uterine state. The non-pregnant uterus undergoes small, spontaneous contractions in addition to ...
*
Breast milk production
*
Sex organ
A sex organ, also known as a reproductive organ, is a part of an organism that is involved in sexual reproduction. Sex organs constitute the primary sex characteristics of an organism. Sex organs are responsible for producing and transporting ...
functions in both
sex
Sex is the biological trait that determines whether a sexually reproducing organism produces male or female gametes. During sexual reproduction, a male and a female gamete fuse to form a zygote, which develops into an offspring that inheri ...
es
*
Thyroid gland
The thyroid, or thyroid gland, is an endocrine gland in vertebrates. In humans, it is a butterfly-shaped gland located in the neck below the Adam's apple. It consists of two connected lobes. The lower two thirds of the lobes are connected by ...
function
*
Metabolic
Metabolism (, from ''metabolē'', "change") is the set of life-sustaining chemical reactions in organisms. The three main functions of metabolism are: the conversion of the energy in food to energy available to run cellular processes; the ...
conversion of food into
energy
Energy () is the physical quantity, quantitative physical property, property that is transferred to a physical body, body or to a physical system, recognizable in the performance of Work (thermodynamics), work and in the form of heat and l ...
*
Water
Water is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula . It is a transparent, tasteless, odorless, and Color of water, nearly colorless chemical substance. It is the main constituent of Earth's hydrosphere and the fluids of all known liv ...
and
osmolarity
Osmotic concentration, formerly known as osmolarity, is the measure of solute concentration, defined as the number of osmoles (Osm) of solute per litre (L) of solution (osmol/L or Osm/L). The osmolarity of a solution is usually expressed as Osm/ ...
regulation in the body
* Water balance via the control of reabsorption of
water
Water is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula . It is a transparent, tasteless, odorless, and Color of water, nearly colorless chemical substance. It is the main constituent of Earth's hydrosphere and the fluids of all known liv ...
by the
kidneys
In humans, the kidneys are two reddish-brown bean-shaped blood-filtering organs that are a multilobar, multipapillary form of mammalian kidneys, usually without signs of external lobulation. They are located on the left and right in the retro ...
* Temperature regulation
*
Pain
Pain is a distressing feeling often caused by intense or damaging Stimulus (physiology), stimuli. The International Association for the Study of Pain defines pain as "an unpleasant sense, sensory and emotional experience associated with, or res ...
relief
Development
The development of the pituitary gland, is a complex process that occurs early in the
organogenesis
Organogenesis is the phase of embryonic development that starts at the end of gastrulation and continues until birth. During organogenesis, the three germ layers formed from gastrulation (the ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm) form the internal org ...
stage of
embryonic development
In developmental biology, animal embryonic development, also known as animal embryogenesis, is the developmental stage of an animal embryo. Embryonic development starts with the fertilization of an egg cell (ovum) by a sperm, sperm cell (spermat ...
. It begins as a thickening of cells
in the embryonic
ectoderm
The ectoderm is one of the three primary germ layers formed in early embryonic development. It is the outermost layer, and is superficial to the mesoderm (the middle layer) and endoderm (the innermost layer). It emerges and originates from the o ...
that form a
neurogenic cranial placode, the hypophyseal placode or adenohypophyseal placode, that in the fourth week of
gestational age
In obstetrics, gestational age is a measure of the age of a pregnancy taken from the beginning of the woman's last menstrual period (LMP), or the corresponding age of the gestation as estimated by a more accurate method, if available. Such metho ...
, gives rise to
Rathke's pouch
In embryogenesis, Rathke's pouch is an evagination at the roof of the developing mouth in front of the buccopharyngeal membrane. It gives rise to the anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis), a part of the endocrine system.
Development
Rathke's pou ...
.
Rathke's pouch is the ectodermal outpocketing from the roof of the developing mouth, and gives rise to the anterior pituitary.
A downward extension from the
neuroectoderm
Neuroectoderm (or neural ectoderm or neural tube epithelium) consists of cells derived from the ectoderm. Formation of the neuroectoderm is the first step in the development of the nervous system. The neuroectoderm receives bone morphogenetic pro ...
as the infundibulum, forms the posterior pituitary.
Differentiation and
migration
Migration, migratory, or migrate may refer to: Human migration
* Human migration, physical movement by humans from one region to another
** International migration, when peoples cross state boundaries and stay in the host state for some minimum le ...
takes place in weeks 5 and 6. Rathke's pouch grows towards the developing brain. The upper part of the pouch eventually constricts and detaches from the oral cavity, and cells in Rathke's pouch differentiate to form three parts of the adenohypophysis: the pars distalis, pars intermedia, and pars tuberalis.
In weeks 4 to 8 the posterior pituitary is formed. The infundibulum from the diencephalon elongates downward, forming a stalk that connects with Rathke’s pouch. This stalk will develop into the posterior pituitary where specialized cells from the hypothalamus, known as
pituicyte
Pituicytes are glial cells of the posterior pituitary. Their main role is to assist in the storage and release of neurohypophysial hormones.
Structure
Pituicytes are located in the pars nervosa of the posterior pituitary and interspersed with u ...
s, migrate to help store and release hormones such as
oxytocin
Oxytocin is a peptide hormone and neuropeptide normally produced in the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary. Present in animals since early stages of evolution, in humans it plays roles in behavior that include Human bonding, ...
and
vasopressin
Mammalian vasopressin, also called antidiuretic hormone (ADH), arginine vasopressin (AVP) or argipressin, is a hormone synthesized from the ''AVP'' gene as a peptide prohormone in neurons in the hypothalamus, and is converted to AVP. It ...
.
From week 12 to week 16, the anterior pituitary starts to produce hormones, notably
growth hormone
Growth hormone (GH) or somatotropin, also known as human growth hormone (hGH or HGH) in its human form, is a peptide hormone that stimulates growth, cell reproduction, and cell regeneration in humans and other animals. It is thus important in ...
and around the 12th to 16th week of gestation, the anterior pituitary begins producing hormones like growth hormone (GH), and
adrenocorticotropic hormone
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH; also adrenocorticotropin, corticotropin) is a polypeptide tropic hormone produced by and secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. It is also used as a medication and diagnostic agent. ACTH is an important ...
(ACTH), essential for fetal development.
By the end of the
first trimester
Pregnancy is the time during which one or more offspring gestates inside a woman's uterus. A multiple pregnancy involves more than one offspring, such as with twins.
Conception usually occurs following vaginal intercourse, but can also ...
the pituitary gland is completely formed remaining connected to the hypothalamus by the pituitary stalk (infundibulum), allowing the integration of signals from the brain and regulation of various endocrine functions.
This dual-origin structure and function are what make the pituitary gland a unique and critical component of the endocrine system, acting as a bridge between the nervous and endocrine systems.
Pituitary
stem cell
In multicellular organisms, stem cells are undifferentiated or partially differentiated cells that can change into various types of cells and proliferate indefinitely to produce more of the same stem cell. They are the earliest type of cell ...
s can differentiate into different types of hormone-producing cells, with a great number specialising as
gonadotrope
1. Introduction
Gonadotropic cells (also known as gonadotropes, gonadotrophs, delta cells, or delta basophils) are endocrine cells in the anterior pituitary that produce gonadotropins. More specifically, gonadotrophs produce and secrete glyco ...
s.
Clinical significance

Some of the diseases involving the pituitary gland are:
*
Central diabetes insipidus
Central diabetes insipidus, recently renamed arginine vasopressin deficiency (AVP-D), is a form of diabetes insipidus that is due to a lack of vasopressin (ADH) production in the brain. Vasopressin acts to increase the blood volume, volume of bl ...
caused by a deficiency of
vasopressin
Mammalian vasopressin, also called antidiuretic hormone (ADH), arginine vasopressin (AVP) or argipressin, is a hormone synthesized from the ''AVP'' gene as a peptide prohormone in neurons in the hypothalamus, and is converted to AVP. It ...
*
Gigantism
Gigantism (, ''gígas'', "wiktionary:giant, giant", plural γίγαντες, ''gígantes''), also known as giantism, is a condition characterized by excessive growth and height significantly above average height, average. In humans, this conditi ...
and
acromegaly
Acromegaly is a disorder that results in excess growth of certain parts of the human body. It is caused by excess growth hormone (GH) after the growth plates have closed. The initial symptom is typically enlargement of the hands and feet. There ...
caused by an excess of growth hormone in childhood and adult, respectively
*
Hypothyroidism
Hypothyroidism is an endocrine disease in which the thyroid gland does not produce enough thyroid hormones. It can cause a number of symptoms, such as cold intolerance, poor ability to tolerate cold, fatigue, extreme fatigue, muscle aches, co ...
caused by a deficiency of
thyroid-stimulating hormone
*
Hyperpituitarism
Hyperpituitarism is a condition due to the primary hypersecretion of pituitary hormones; it typically results from a pituitary adenoma. In children with hyperpituitarism, disruption of growth regulation is rare, either because of hormone hypersecr ...
, the increased (hyper) secretion of one or more of the hormones normally produced by the pituitary gland
*
Hypopituitarism
Hypopituitarism is the decreased (''hypo'') secretion of one or more of the eight hormones normally produced by the pituitary gland at the base of the brain. If there is decreased secretion of one specific pituitary hormone, the condition is know ...
, the decreased (hypo) secretion of one or more of the hormones normally produced by the pituitary gland
*
Pituitary adenoma
Pituitary adenomas are tumors that occur in the pituitary gland. Most pituitary tumors are benign, approximately 35% are invasive and just 0.1% to 0.2% are carcinomas.[benign tumor
A benign tumor is a mass of Cell (biology), cells (tumor) that does not Cancer invasion, invade neighboring tissue or Metastasis, metastasize (spread throughout the body). Compared to Cancer, malignant (cancerous) tumors, benign tumors generally ...]
s of the pituitary gland
All of the functions of the pituitary gland can be adversely affected by an over- or under-production of associated hormones.
The pituitary gland is important for mediating the stress response, via the
hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis
The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA axis or HTPA axis) is a complex set of direct influences and feedback interactions among three components: the hypothalamus (a part of the brain located below the thalamus), the pituitary gland ( ...
(HPA axis). Critically, pituitary gland growth during adolescence can be altered by early life stress such as childhood maltreatment or maternal dysphoric (depressive) behavior.
It has been demonstrated that, after controlling for age, sex, and BMI, larger quantities of
DHEA
Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), also known as androstenolone, is an endogenous steroid hormone precursor. It is one of the most abundant circulating steroids in humans. DHEA is produced in the adrenal glands, the gonads, and the brain. It functio ...
and
DHEA-S
Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate, abbreviated as DHEA sulfate or DHEA-S, also known as androstenolone sulfate, is an endogenous androstane steroid that is produced by the adrenal cortex. It is the 3β-sulfate ester and a metabolite of dehydroepiand ...
tended to be linked to larger pituitary volume.
Additionally, a correlation between pituitary gland volume and
social anxiety
Social anxiety is the anxiety and fear specifically linked to being in social settings (i.e., interacting with others). Some categories of disorders associated with social anxiety include anxiety disorders, mood disorders, autism spectrum dis ...
subscale scores was identified which provided a basis for exploring mediation. Again controlling for age, sex, and BMI,
DHEA
Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), also known as androstenolone, is an endogenous steroid hormone precursor. It is one of the most abundant circulating steroids in humans. DHEA is produced in the adrenal glands, the gonads, and the brain. It functio ...
and
DHEA-S
Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate, abbreviated as DHEA sulfate or DHEA-S, also known as androstenolone sulfate, is an endogenous androstane steroid that is produced by the adrenal cortex. It is the 3β-sulfate ester and a metabolite of dehydroepiand ...
have been found to be predictive of larger pituitary gland volume, which was also associated with increased ratings of social anxiety.
This research provides evidence that pituitary gland volume mediates the link between higher DHEA(S) levels (associated with relatively early adrenarche) and traits associated with social anxiety.
Children who experience early adrenarcheal development tend to have larger pituitary gland volume compared to children with later adrenarcheal development.
History
Etymology
Pituitary gland
The Greek
physician
A physician, medical practitioner (British English), medical doctor, or simply doctor is a health professional who practices medicine, which is concerned with promoting, maintaining or restoring health through the Medical education, study, Med ...
Galen
Aelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus (; September 129 – AD), often Anglicization, anglicized as Galen () or Galen of Pergamon, was a Ancient Rome, Roman and Greeks, Greek physician, surgeon, and Philosophy, philosopher. Considered to be one o ...
referred to the pituitary gland by only using the (
Ancient Greek
Ancient Greek (, ; ) includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the classical antiquity, ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (), Greek ...
) name ,
[Hyrtl, J. (1880). ''Onomatologia Anatomica. Geschichte und Kritik der anatomischen Sprache der Gegenwart.'' Wien: Wilhelm Braumüller. K.K. Hof- und Universitätsbuchhändler.] ''gland''.
[Liddell, H.G. & Scott, R. (1940). ''A Greek-English Lexicon. revised and augmented throughout by Sir Henry Stuart Jones. with the assistance of. Roderick McKenzie.'' Oxford: Clarendon Press.] He described the pituitary gland as part of a series of secretory organs for the excretion of
nasal mucus
The nasal mucosa lines the nasal cavity. It is part of the respiratory mucosa, the mucous membrane lining the respiratory tract. The nasal mucosa is intimately adherent to the periosteum or perichondrium of the nasal conchae. It is continuous w ...
.
Anatomist
Andreas Vesalius
Andries van Wezel (31 December 1514 – 15 October 1564), latinized as Andreas Vesalius (), was an anatomist and physician who wrote '' De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem'' (''On the fabric of the human body'' ''in seven books''), which is ...
translated with ''glans, in quam pituita destillat'', "gland in which slime (''pituita''
[Lewis, C.T. & Short, C. (1879). ''A Latin dictionary founded on Andrews' edition of Freund's Latin dictionary.'' Oxford: Clarendon Press.]) drips".
[Schreger, C.H.Th.(1805). ''Synonymia anatomica. Synonymik der anatomischen Nomenclatur.'' Fürth: im Bureau für Literatur.] Besides this 'descriptive' name, Vesalius used ''glandula pituitaria'', from which the English name ''pituitary gland''
[Anderson, D.M. (2000). ''Dorland's illustrated medical dictionary'' (29th edition). Philadelphia/London/Toronto/Montreal/Sydney/Tokyo: W.B. Saunders Company.] is ultimately derived.
The expression ''glandula pituitaria'' is still used as official synonym beside ''hypophysis'' in the official Latin nomenclature ''
Terminologia Anatomica
''Terminologia Anatomica'' (commonly abbreviated TA) is the international standard for human anatomy, human anatomical terminology. It is developed by the Federative International Programme on Anatomical Terminology (FIPAT) a program of the Inter ...
''.
[Federative Committee on Anatomical Terminology (FCAT) (1998). ''Terminologia Anatomica''. Stuttgart: Thieme] In the seventeenth century the supposed function of the pituitary gland to produce nasal mucus was debunked.
The expression ''glandula pituitaria'' and its English equivalent ''pituitary gland'' can only be justified from a historical point of view.
[Triepel, H. (1927). ''Die anatomischen Namen. Ihre Ableitung und Aussprache. Anhang: Biographische Notizen.''(Elfte Auflage). München: Verlag J.F. Bergmann.] The inclusion of this synonym is merely justified by noting that the main term ''hypophysis'' is a much less popular term.
[International Anatomical Nomenclature Committee (1966). ''Nomina Anatomica''. Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica Foundation, p. 62]
Hypophysis
Note: ''hypophysial'' (or ''hypophyseal'') means "related to the hypophysis (pituitary gland)".
The German anatomist
Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring
Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring (28 January 1755 – 2 March 1830) was a German physician, anatomist, anthropologist, paleontologist and inventor. Sömmerring discovered the macula in the retina of the human eye. His investigations on the bra ...
coined the name ''hypophysis''.
This name consists
of ὑπό ('under')
and φύειν ('to grow').
In later Greek ὑπόφυσις is used differently by Greek physicians as ''outgrowth''.
Sömmering also used the equivalent expression ''appendix cerebri'',
with ''appendix'' as ''appendage''.
In various languages,
in
German
German(s) may refer to:
* Germany, the country of the Germans and German things
**Germania (Roman era)
* Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language
** For citizenship in Germany, see also Ge ...
and
[Pinkhof, H. (1923). ''Vertalend en verklarend woordenboek van uitheemsche geneeskundige termen.'' Haarlem: De Erven F. Bohn.] in
Dutch
Dutch or Nederlands commonly refers to:
* Something of, from, or related to the Netherlands
** Dutch people as an ethnic group ()
** Dutch nationality law, history and regulations of Dutch citizenship ()
** Dutch language ()
* In specific terms, i ...
, the terms are derived from ''appendix cerebri''.
Other animals
The pituitary gland is found in all vertebrates, but its structure varies among different groups.
The division of the pituitary described above is typical of
mammal
A mammal () is a vertebrate animal of the Class (biology), class Mammalia (). Mammals are characterised by the presence of milk-producing mammary glands for feeding their young, a broad neocortex region of the brain, fur or hair, and three ...
s, and is also true, to varying degrees, of all
tetrapod
A tetrapod (; from Ancient Greek :wiktionary:τετρα-#Ancient Greek, τετρα- ''(tetra-)'' 'four' and :wiktionary:πούς#Ancient Greek, πούς ''(poús)'' 'foot') is any four-Limb (anatomy), limbed vertebrate animal of the clade Tetr ...
s. However, only in mammals does the posterior pituitary have a compact shape. In
lungfish
Lungfish are freshwater vertebrates belonging to the class Dipnoi. Lungfish are best known for retaining ancestral characteristics within the Osteichthyes, including the ability to breathe air, and ancestral structures within Sarcopterygii, inc ...
, it is a relatively flat sheet of tissue lying above the anterior pituitary, but in
amphibian
Amphibians are ectothermic, anamniote, anamniotic, tetrapod, four-limbed vertebrate animals that constitute the class (biology), class Amphibia. In its broadest sense, it is a paraphyletic group encompassing all Tetrapod, tetrapods, but excl ...
s,
reptile
Reptiles, as commonly defined, are a group of tetrapods with an ectothermic metabolism and Amniotic egg, amniotic development. Living traditional reptiles comprise four Order (biology), orders: Testudines, Crocodilia, Squamata, and Rhynchocepha ...
s, and
bird
Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates constituting the class (biology), class Aves (), characterised by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, the Oviparity, laying of Eggshell, hard-shelled eggs, a high Metabolism, metabolic rate, a fou ...
s, it becomes increasingly well developed. The intermediate lobe is, in general, not well developed in any species and is entirely absent in birds.
The structure of the pituitary in fish, apart from the lungfish, is generally different from that in other animals. In general, the intermediate lobe tends to be well developed, and may equal the remainder of the anterior pituitary in size. The posterior lobe typically forms a sheet of tissue at the base of the pituitary stalk, and in most cases sends irregular finger-like projection into the tissue of the anterior pituitary, which lies directly beneath it. The anterior pituitary is typically divided into two regions, a more anterior ''rostral'' portion and a posterior ''proximal'' portion, but the boundary between the two is often not clearly marked. In
elasmobranch
Elasmobranchii () is a subclass of Chondrichthyes or cartilaginous fish, including modern sharks ( division Selachii), and batomorphs (division Batomorphi, including rays, skates, and sawfish). Members of this subclass are characterised by h ...
s, there is an additional, ''ventral lobe'' beneath the anterior pituitary proper.
The arrangement in
lamprey
Lampreys (sometimes inaccurately called lamprey eels) are a group of Agnatha, jawless fish comprising the order (biology), order Petromyzontiformes , sole order in the Class (biology), class Petromyzontida. The adult lamprey is characterize ...
s, which are among the most primitive of all fish, may indicate how the pituitary originally evolved in ancestral vertebrates. Here, the posterior pituitary is a simple flat sheet of tissue at the base of the brain, and there is no pituitary stalk. Rathke's pouch remains open to the outside, close to the nasal openings. Closely associated with the pouch are three distinct clusters of glandular tissue, corresponding to the intermediate lobe, and the rostral and proximal portions of the anterior pituitary. These various parts are separated by
meningial membranes, suggesting that the pituitary of other vertebrates may have formed from the fusion of a pair of separate, but associated, glands.
Most
armadillos
Armadillos () are New World placental mammals in the order Cingulata. They form part of the superorder Xenarthra, along with the anteaters and sloths. 21 extant species of armadillo have been described, some of which are distinguished by th ...
also possess a neural secretory gland very similar in form to the posterior pituitary, but located in the tail and associated with the
spinal cord
The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular structure made up of nervous tissue that extends from the medulla oblongata in the lower brainstem to the lumbar region of the vertebral column (backbone) of vertebrate animals. The center of the spinal c ...
. This may have a function in
osmoregulation
Osmoregulation is the active regulation of the osmotic pressure of an organism's body fluids, detected by osmoreceptors, to maintain the homeostasis of the organism's water content; that is, it maintains the fluid balance and the concentration ...
.
There is a structure
analogous
Analogy is a comparison or correspondence between two things (or two groups of things) because of a third element that they are considered to share.
In logic, it is an inference or an argument from one particular to another particular, as oppose ...
to the pituitary in the
octopus
An octopus (: octopuses or octopodes) is a soft-bodied, eight-limbed mollusc of the order Octopoda (, ). The order consists of some 300 species and is grouped within the class Cephalopoda with squids, cuttlefish, and nautiloids. Like oth ...
brain.
Intermediate lobe
Although rudimentary in humans (and often considered part of the
anterior pituitary
The anterior pituitary (also called the adenohypophysis or pars anterior) is a major Organ (anatomy), organ of the endocrine system. The anterior pituitary is the glandular, Anatomical terms of location#Usage in human anatomy, anterior lobe that t ...
), the
intermediate lobe
The pars intermedia is one of the three parts of the anterior pituitary. It is a section of tissue sometimes called a middle or intermediate lobe, between the pars distalis, and the posterior pituitary. It is a small region that is largely with ...
located between the anterior and posterior pituitary is important to many animals. For instance, in fish, it is believed to control physiological color change. In adult humans, it is just a thin layer of cells between the anterior and posterior pituitary. The intermediate lobe produces
melanocyte-stimulating hormone
The melanocyte-stimulating hormones, known collectively as MSH, also known as melanotropins or intermedins, are a family of peptide hormones and neuropeptides consisting of α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH), β-melanocyte-stimulating ...
(MSH), although this function is often (imprecisely) attributed to the anterior pituitary.
The intermediate lobe is, in general, not well developed in tetrapods, and is entirely absent in birds.
Additional images
Image:Diagram showing the position of the pituitary gland in the brain CRUK 413.svg, Frontal view
Image:Illu pituitary pineal glands.jpg, Pituitary and pineal glands
Image:Gray1180.png, Depiction of pituitary gland
See also
*
Head and neck anatomy
This article describes the anatomy of the head and neck of the human body, including the brain, bones, muscles, blood vessels, nerves, glands, nose, mouth, teeth, tongue, and throat.
Structure Bones
The head rests on the top part of the vertebr ...
*
Chromophobe cell
A chromophobe cell is a cell that does not stain readily, and thus appears relatively pale under the microscope. It is contrasted with a chromophil cell that does stain easily.
Chromophobe cells are one of three cell stain types present in the ...
:*
Melanotroph A melanotroph (or melanotrope) is a cell in the pituitary gland that generates melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α‐MSH) from its precursor pro-opiomelanocortin. Chronic stress can induce the secretion of α‐MSH in melanotrophs and lead to their s ...
*
Chromophil
A chromophil is a cell which is easily stainable by absorbing chromium salts used in histology to increase the visual contrast of samples for microscopy.
Function
Chromophil cells are mostly hormone-producing cells containing so-called chromaffin ...
:*
Acidophil cell
In the anterior pituitary, the term "acidophil" is used to describe two different types of cells which stain well with acidic dyes.
* somatotrophs, which secrete growth hormone (a peptide hormone)
* lactotrophs, which secrete prolactin (a peptid ...
:*
Basophil cell
An anterior pituitary basophil is a type of cell in the anterior pituitary which manufactures hormones.
It is called a basophil because it is basophilic (readily takes up bases), and typically stains a relatively deep blue or purple.
These bas ...
*
Oxyphil cell (parathyroid)
Parathyroid oxyphil cells, also named oncocytes, are one out of the two types of cells found in the parathyroid gland, the other being parathyroid chief cell. Oxyphil cells are only found in a select few number of species and humans are one of the ...
*
Neuroendocrine cell
Neuroendocrine cells are cells that receive neuronal input (through neurotransmitters released by nerve cells or neurosecretory cells) and, as a consequence of this input, release messenger molecules (hormones) into the blood. In this way they bri ...
References
External links
*
*
The Pituitary Gland, from the UMM Endocrinology Health Guide(2011 archive)
The Pituitary FoundationThe Pituitary Network Association -- pituitary.org
{{Authority control
Endocrine system anatomy
Human head and neck
Neuroendocrinology
Human female endocrine system
Articles containing video clips