Pisaura mirabilis on Plantago lanceolata

The nursery web spider ''Pisaura mirabilis'' is a

spider Spiders (order (biology), order Araneae) are air-breathing arthropods that have eight limbs, chelicerae with fangs generally able to inject venom, and spinnerets that extrude spider silk, silk. They are the largest order of arachnids and ran ...

species A species () is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate sexes or mating types can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. It is the basic unit of Taxonomy (biology), ...

of the family Pisauridae.

Description

Striking characteristics of ''Pisaura mirabilis'' are its long legs (the fourth pair being the longest) and its slender abdomen ( opisthosoma). The male is between 10 and 13 mm, while the female is 12 to 15 mm. After final ecdysis, the male spiders weigh on average 54 mg and females 68 mg. The prosoma ( cephalothorax) is variable in color, ranging from light to reddish brown and from gray to black. A lighter stripe is visible down the middle of the prosoma. The opisthosoma (abdomen) is long and narrow and tapered towards the rear end. The female spiders has a dark patch ( epigyne) on the underside of her abdomen that includes the copulatory organs. Male genital openings can be found at the same location, but remain inconspicuous. Patterning and coloration varies due to polymorphism. These patterns, which can be caused by hair and pigments, change with the growth of the spider ( ontogenesis). Male spiders exhibit a stronger contrast than females and appear black, especially when compared to the white nuptial gifts. Females tend to get paler towards the end of summer. The stripe along the back of the body can be found in all spiders and can be seen as crypsis, a protective measure against predators. The pedipalps in

nymphs A nymph (; ; sometimes spelled nymphe) is a minor female nature deity in ancient Greek folklore. Distinct from other Greek goddesses, nymphs are generally regarded as personifications of nature; they are typically tied to a specific place, land ...

and females look similar to legs. In males, this structure gets thicker towards the end and is used to store sperm until reproduction ( bulbus). The outer chelicerae segment consists of three teeth. They catch their prey during the day and at night and are also active on warm winter days.

Habitat and distribution

''Pisaura mirabilis'' has a

palearctic The Palearctic or Palaearctic is a biogeographic realm of the Earth, the largest of eight. Confined almost entirely to the Eastern Hemisphere, it stretches across Europe and Asia, north of the foothills of the Himalayas, and North Africa. Th ...

distribution, and can be found all over Europe. These spiders inhabit the

Canary Islands The Canary Islands (; ) or Canaries are an archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean and the southernmost Autonomous communities of Spain, Autonomous Community of Spain. They are located in the northwest of Africa, with the closest point to the cont ...

and

Madeira Madeira ( ; ), officially the Autonomous Region of Madeira (), is an autonomous Regions of Portugal, autonomous region of Portugal. It is an archipelago situated in the North Atlantic Ocean, in the region of Macaronesia, just under north of ...

, the Asian part of

Russia Russia, or the Russian Federation, is a country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the list of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the world, and extends across Time in Russia, eleven time zones, sharing Borders ...

China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...

and

North Africa North Africa (sometimes Northern Africa) is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region. However, it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of t ...

. ''P. mirabilis'' lives in all

habitat In ecology, habitat refers to the array of resources, biotic factors that are present in an area, such as to support the survival and reproduction of a particular species. A species' habitat can be seen as the physical manifestation of its ...

s, but prefers wet environments, such as

wet meadow A wet meadow is a type of wetland with soils that are Solubility, saturated for part or all of the growing season which prevents the growth of trees and brush. Debate exists whether a wet meadow is a type of marsh or a completely separate type of ...

s, lowland moors,

salt marsh A salt marsh, saltmarsh or salting, also known as a coastal salt marsh or a tidal marsh, is a coastal ecosystem in the upper coastal intertidal zone between land and open saltwater or brackish water that is regularly flooded by the tides. I ...

es, dunes, the edge of forests, and wet hedges. It inhabits all

strata In geology and related fields, a stratum (: strata) is a layer of Rock (geology), rock or sediment characterized by certain Lithology, lithologic properties or attributes that distinguish it from adjacent layers from which it is separated by v ...

, from the ground to the top of trees, but are not found under rocks or in caves. These spiders can be found at altitudes up to 1100 m.

Life cycle

The spider develops from a fertilised egg inside a cocoon into an embryo. After inversion, the embryo enters the prelarval stage. A few hours later, the prelarva moults into a

larva A larva (; : larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into their next life stage. Animals with indirect development such as insects, some arachnids, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase ...

. At this stage, the spiders are colorless but mobile, and can detect sensory signals from its surrounding. They do not have any eyes yet and their chelicerae are short and sharp. A few fine hairs can be found on their feet. Depending on the temperature, the larvae moult after 4.5 – 7.5 days into the first nymphal stage. Once leaving the cocoon through an opening, they live in a protective web made by the mother, where they feed on the leftover yolk from their eggs and drink from water droplets. After about a week, the nymphs start suspending themselves from their own spider silk and start preying on fruit flies. This usually happens in the sixth or seventh nymphal stage. Cannibalism does not occur in the first few days, but occurs in later stages. The whole nymphal stage is divided into 12 stages at most. Male spiders become sexually mature in the 9th to 11th stages, females in the 10th to 12th stages. Temperature can influence the development and number of stages, with colder temperatures slowing down the process. Under good conditions, spiders can complete their nymphal development in fewer than 12 stages. The duration from prelarval stage to final moult (maturity) typically lasts 257 days for males (stage 10) and 289 days for females (stage 11). Adulthood is the period after final moult till death. Females live longer than males, the record being 247 days for females and 186.5 days for males. Depending on habitat, nursery web spiders hibernate once or twice during the nymphal stage. The period of hibernation ( diapause) is spent in ground vegetation under leaves, moss, and stones. They can be found in garages and houses, as well. Some individuals in the south of

France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...

have been found under loose bark of the plane tree. The nymphs in stages 6 to 8 start hibernating in November and continue with their development towards the end of February to the beginning of March. ''Pisaura mirabilis'' in Western and Central Europe reach sexual maturity in May, when sperm uptake, the search for females, offering of nuptial gifts, and courtship and mating takes place. In Northern and Eastern Europe, spiders reach sexual maturity only in June, while in Southern Europe, they become sexually mature in April. Nursery web spiders have a one-year annual cycle in southern Europe. They grow in summer, hibernate in winter, reach adulthood in spring, and reproduce and then die in autumn. Their offspring are sexually mature in the following spring. Spiders from the north have a two-year cycle, having to go through two hibernations before reaching sexual maturity. Spiders in Western and Central Europe have a mix of both one- and two-year cycles. Males have a two-month period to reproduce; females three and a half.

Mating system

Males of this species offer a nuptial gift to potential female mates. Some ''Pisaura mirabilis'' specimens have also been observed to use thanatosis during courtship.Hansen, S. H., Gonzalez S. F., Toft, S., & Bilde, T. (2008). Thanatosis as an adaptive male mating strategy in the nuptial gift-giving spider ''Pisaura mirabilis''. Behavioral Ecology 19: 546–551. After presenting the nuptial gift to the female, she bites on to the gift and the male moves to her epigyne to deposit sperm with his

pedipalps Pedipalps (commonly shortened to palps or palpi) are the secondary pair of forward appendages among Chelicerata, chelicerates – a group of arthropods including spiders, scorpions, horseshoe crabs, and sea spiders. The pedipalps are lateral to ...

. Throughout copulation, the male keeps a leg on the gift so as to be ready if she tries to escape with it or attack him. At this time, the male may feign death – his limbs become straight and he is dragged along with the female while holding on to the gift. When the female stops, the male slowly "resurrects" and continues attempting to mate. Thanatosis in ''P. mirabilis'' has been observed to significantly increase the male's odds of successfully copulating from less than 30% to 89%.

Predators, parasites, and pathogens

Predators of ''Pisaura mirabilis'' includes spider wasps,

tree frogs A tree frog (or treefrog) is any species of frog that spends a major portion of its lifespan in trees, known as an arboreal state. Several Lineage (evolution), lineages of frogs among the Neobatrachia suborder have given rise to treefrogs, althou ...

, lizards, and song birds during the day, and toads, shrew mice, and bats at night. Other spider species, as well as from the same species (cannibalism), consider ''P. mirabilis'' as prey. Nursery web spiders are often parasitised by

nematode The nematodes ( or ; ; ), roundworms or eelworms constitute the phylum Nematoda. Species in the phylum inhabit a broad range of environments. Most species are free-living, feeding on microorganisms, but many are parasitic. Parasitic worms (h ...

s, parasitic wasps, and Acari. These parasites infect the spider and its eggs and cocoons, which can lead to destruction of a whole clutch of eggs. ''

Baculoviridae ''Baculoviridae'' is a family of viruses. Arthropods, among the most studied being Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera and Diptera, serve as natural hosts. Currently, 85 Virus classification, species are placed in this family, assigned to four genera. Bac ...

'' and '' Rickettsia'' species infect nursery web spiders, as well. They most likely enter the gastrointestinal tract via the spiders' prey. Not only can nymphs and adults be infected, but different stages in the cocoon are infected, as well.

References

* B. Baehr, M. Baehr: ''Welche Spinne ist das? Kleine Spinnenkunde für jedermann''. Franckh Kosmos Verlag, Stuttgart, 1987, * J. A. Barrientos: ''Dolomedes et Pisaura dans la région catalane (Araneida, Pisauridae)''. Rev. Arachol. 2: 17–21 * Heiko Bellmann: ''Kosmos-Atlas Spinnentiere Europas''. Franck Kosmos Verlag, 1997, * Heiko Bellmann: ''Spinnen (die wichtigsten heimischen Arten, Extra: Netzformen und Eikokons)''. Franckh Kosmos Verlag, 1994 * Heiko Bellmann: ''Spinnen: beobachten – bestimmen'', Naturbuch Verlag, Augsburg, 1992, * P. Blandin: ''Cycle biologique et production de l'araignée Afropisaura valida (Simon 1885)(Araneae, Pisauridae) dans une savane d'Afrique occidentale (Lamto, Côte-d'Ivoire)''. Trop. Ecol. 20: 78–93, 1974 * P. Blandin: ''Etudes sur les Pisauridae africaines. I-XI''. Rev. Suisse Zool. 81, Rev. Zool. afr. 89–93, 1974–1979 * J.-C. Bonaric: ''Contribution à l'étude de la biologie du développement chez l'araignée Pisaura mirabilis (Clerck 1758). Approche physiologique des phénomènes de mue et de diapause hivernale''. Thèse Doctorat d'Etat, Univ. Montpellier, 1980 * J.-C. Bonaric: ''Evolution du métabolisme respiratoire de Pisaura mirabilis CL. (Araneae, Pisauridae) au cours de la période nympho-imaginale''. Rev. Arachnol. 1: 33–43, 1977 * J.-C. Bonaric: ''La cycle vitale de l'araignée Pisaura mirabilis et ses adapatations''. Bull. Soc. Zool. Fr. 110 (3): 269–274, 1985 * J.-C. Bonaric: ''Le développement post-embryonnaire de Pisaura mirabilis CL. (Araneae, Pisauridae)''. C. R. Acad. Sci. sér. D. 278: 3227–3230, 1974 * J.-C. Bonaric: ''Utilisation des barêmes trichobothriotaxiques comme critère d'âge chez Pisaura mirabilis CL. (Araneae, Pisauridae)''. Ann. Zool. 12e sér. 17: 521–534, 1975 * W. Bösenberg: ''Die Spinnen Deutschlands''. Zoologica 14: 409–410, 1901 * P. M. Brignoli: ''A Catalogue of the Aranea described between 1940 and 1981''. Manchester Univ. Press, 1983 * P. M. Brignoli: ''Spiders from Libanon. III. Some notes on the Pisauridae, Agelenidae and Oxyopidae of the Near East''. Bull. Br. arachnol. Soc. 4 (5): 204–209, 1978 * P. M. Brignoli: ''Zur Problematik der mediterranen Pisaura-Arten (Arachnida, Araneae, Pisauridae)''. Zool. Anz. 213: 33–43, 1984 * C. Clerck: ''Svenska spindlar. Aranei svecici''. Stockholm, 1757 * F. Dahl, M. Dahl: ''3. Spinnentiere oder Arachnoidea. I-II''. G. Fischer Jena, 1926/27 * F. Dahl: ''Die Lycosiden oder Wolfsspinnen Deutschlands und ihre Stellung im Haushalte der Natur. Nach statistischen Untersuchungen dargestellt''. Nova acta Acad. Caes. Leop. Carol. 88: 175–678, 1908 * Rainer F. Foelix: ''Biologie der Spinnen''. Thieme Verlag, Stuttgart, 1992, * K. De Geer: ''Abhandlungen zur Geschichte der Insekten. 3. Abhandlung. Von den Spinnen. 7''. Raspe Nürnberg, 1783 * C. D. Dondale, R. Legendre: ''Winter diapause in a Mediterranean population of Pisaura mirabilis (Clerck)''. Bull. Br. Arach. Soc. 2 (1): 6–10 * P. Grüne: ''Westfälische Spinnen. III. Die Haidespinnen''. Natur Offenb.19: 213–223, 1873 * Hänggi, Stöckli und Nentwig: ''Lebensräume mitteleuropäischer Spinnen. Centre Suisse de cartographie de la faune''. Neuchatel Verlag, 1995, * Stefan Heimer: ''Wunderbare Welt der Spinnen''. Landbuch Verlag, Hannover, 1988, * Stefan Heimer, Wolfgang Nentwig: ''Spinnen Mitteleuropas. Ein Bestimmungsbuch''. Parey Verlag, Berlin, Hamburg, 1991 * Dick Jones: ''Der Kosmos Spinnenführer''. Franckh Kosmos Verlag, 1990, * A. Lang, C. Klarenberg: ''Experiments on the foraging behaviour of the hunting spider Pisaura mirabilis (Araneae, Pisauridae): Utilisation of single prey items''. Eur. J. Ent. 94: 453–459, 1997 * A. Lang: ''A note on body size parameters and some life data of Pisaura mirabilis (Araneae, Pisauridae)''. Proc. XV. Eur. Coll. Arachnol. 111–115, 1995 * A. Lang: ''Silk investment in gifts by males of the nuptial feeding spider Pisaura mirabilis (Araneae, Pisauridae)''. Behaviour 133: 697–716, 1996 * A. Lang: ''Die Spinnseide des Brautgeschenks bei Pisaura mirabilis (Clerck 1757) (Araneae, Pisauridae)''. Diplomarbeit Univ. München, 1991 * G. Le Pape: ''Relations entre comportement alimentaire et comportement sexuel chez Pisaura mirabilis (Aranéide, Pisauride)''. Rev. Comp. Anim. 8: 71–75, 1974 * G. Le Pape: ''Contribution à l'étude du comportment reproducteur en liaison avec l'alimentation chez quatre Arachnides: Teutana grossa, Pardosa lugubris, Pisaura mirabilis, Buthus occitanus''. Thèse Doctorat d'Etat Univ. Rennes, 1972 * Willi Lierath: ''Aus dem Reichtum der Natur. Die Brautgeschenkspinne''. Vögel der Heimat 58 (12): 238–239, 1988 * Carl Linné: ''Systema naturae. Per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis''. Tomus 1. Editio decima, reformata, Holmiae, Facsimile 1956 Jarrolds Norwich, 1758 * Martin Lister: ''Historiae animalum angliae tres tractatus''. London, 1678 * H. Lucas: ''Arachnides, Myriapodes et Thysanoures''. In: M. P. Barker-Webb, S. Berthelot: ''Histoire Naturelle des Iles Canaries''. Béthune, Paris, 1843 * Rainar Nitzsche: ''Beutefang und Brautgeschenk bei der Raubspinne Pisaura mirabilis (CL.)(Aranea,Pisauridae)''. Reprint der Diplomarbeit von 1981. Rainar Nitzsche Verlag, Kaiserslautern, 2006, * Rainar Nitzsche: ''Brautgeschenk und Reproduktion bei Pisaura mirabilis, einschließlich vergleichender Untersuchungen an Dolomedes fimbriatus und Thaumasia uncata (Araneida, Pisauridae)''. Reprint der Dissertation von 1987. Rainar Nitzsche Verlag, Kaiserslautern, 2006, * Rainar Nitzsche: ''Brautgeschenk und Umspinnen der Beute bei Pisaura mirabilis, Dolomedes fimbriatus und Thaumasia uncata (Arachnida, Araneida, Pisauridae)''. Verh. naturwiss. Ver. Hamburg (NF) 30, 1988 * Rainar Nitzsche: ''Brautgeschenke bei Spinnen – die heimische Pisaura mirabilis (CLERCK, 1757) und ihre Verwandten, die Kinderstubennetzspinnen (Pisauridae)''. Arachne 13 (1): 11–29, 2008 * Rainar Nitzsche: ''Courtship, mating and agonistic behaviour in Pisaura mirabilis (CLERCK, 1757)''. Bull. Br. arachnol. Soc. 15 (4): 93–120, 2011 * Rainar Nitzsche: ''Die Spinne mit dem Brautgeschenk Pisaura mirabilis (CLERCK, 1757) und das Paarungsverhalten verwandter Arten der Familie Pisauridae''. Rainar Nitzsche Verlag, Kaiserslautern, 1999, 2007, * Rainar Nitzsche: ''Ein Geschenk für die Braut. Ohne Mitgift haben Raubspinnenmännchen keine Chance''. Ein Herz für Tiere 7/1986 * Rainar Nitzsche: ''Raubspinnen. Kleine Geschenke fördern die Liebe''. GEO 8/1985 * P. Pénicaud: ''Dynamique d'une population de l'araignée Pisaura mirabilis Cl. dans une lande bretonne''. Thèse Doctorat d'Etat Univ. Paris, 1979 * H. Pfletschinger: ''Einheimische Spinnen. Die Webspinnen – Arten und Verhalten in 120 Farbfotos''. Franck Kosmos Verlag, Stuttgart, 1976 * F. Renner: ''Spinnen ungeheuer – sympathisch''. Rainar Nitzsche Verlag, Kaiserslautern, 1990/2008, * M. J. Roberts: ''Spinnengids''. Tirion, 1998 * C. F. Roewer: ''Katalog der Aranae von 1758 bis 1954''. 2a: 110–151, Bruxelles, 1954 * F. Sauer, J. Wunderlich: ''Die schönsten Spinnen Europas''. Fauna Verlag, Karlsfeld, 1984 * G. Schmidt: ''Das Liebes- und Familienleben der Heidejagdspinne''. Aus der Heimat 60: 153–154, 1952 * G. Schmidt: ''Psychologie einer Spinne. Die Heidejagdspinne und ihre Bedeutung für die Umweltforschung''. Orion 10: 560–568, 1955 * G. Schmidt: ''Spinnen. Alles Wissenswerte über Lebensweise, Sammeln, Haltung und Zucht''. A. Philler, Minden, 1980 * G. Schmidt: ''Zur Spinnenfauna der Kanaren, Madeiras und der Azoren''. Stuttgarter Beitr. Naturk. Ser. A 451: 1–46 * G. Schmidt: ''Zur Spinnenfauna von Gran Canaria''. Zool. Beitr. N. F. 19: 347–392, 1973 * G. Schmidt: ''Zur Spinnenfauna von La Gomera''. Zool. Beitr. (N. F.) 27: 85–107 * G. Schmidt: ''Zur Spinnenfauna von Teneriffa''. Zool. Beitr. N. F. 14: 387–425, 1968 * H. W. Smolik: ''Weltreich der Tiere''. Naturalis Verlag, München, 1987 * H. Stern, E. Kullmann: ''Leben am seidenen Faden. Die rätselvolle Welt der Spinnen''. Bertelsmann Verlag, München, 1975 * J. Wunderlich: ''Die Spinnen der Kanarischen Inseln und Madeiras''. Triops Verlag, Langen, 1987

Films

* J. Bublath: ''Räuber mit Netz. Das aufregende Leben der Spinnen. Aus Forschung und Technik'', ZDF, 1987 * P. Hayden: ''Wenn Tiere zu Kannibalen werden. Killer in den eigenen Reihen'', SWR (Südwest 3), 1999 * P. Schneider: ''Pisaura mirabilis, die Raub-, Jagd- oder Listspinne'', HWF 14, Begleitheft Heidelberg, 1998 * E. R. Skinner, G. H. Thompson, J. A. L. Cooke: ''Commentary, spiders film 11: Pisauridae. Pisaura mirabilis – courtship and mating. Dolomedes fimbriatus – capture of food''. Oxford (IWF W1017 T), 1966/67 * H. Stern: ''Bemerkungen über Spinnen 2.Meilensteine des Dokumentarfilms'', Ein Franckh-Kosmos Video, Franckh Kosmos Stuttgart, 1975

External links

Platnick: The World Spider Catalog – Pisauridae
{{Taxonbar, from=Q1548200 Palearctic spiders Pisauridae Spiders described in 1757 Spiders of Europe Taxa named by Carl Alexander Clerck