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Pickling is the process of preserving or extending the shelf life of food by either anaerobic fermentation in brine or immersion in vinegar. The pickling procedure typically affects the food's texture and flavor. The resulting food is called a ''pickle'', or, if named, the name is prefaced with the word "pickled". Foods that are pickled include vegetables, fruits, mushrooms, meats, fish, dairy and eggs.

Pickling solutions are typically highly acidic, with a pH of 4.6 or lower, and high in salt, preventing enzymes from working and micro-organisms from multiplying. Pickling can preserve perishable foods for months, or in some cases years. Antimicrobial herbs and spices, such as mustard seed, garlic, cinnamon or cloves, are often added. If the food contains sufficient moisture, a pickling brine may be produced simply by adding dry salt. For example, sauerkraut and Korean kimchi are produced by salting the vegetables to draw out excess water. Natural fermentation at room temperature, by lactic acid bacteria, produces the required acidity. Other pickles are made by placing vegetables in vinegar. Unlike the canning process, pickling (which includes fermentation) does not require that the food be completely sterile. The acidity or salinity of the solution, the temperature of fermentation, and the exclusion of oxygen determine which microorganisms dominate, and determine the flavor of the end product.McGee, Harold (2004). '' On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen''. New York: Scribner, pp. 291–296. .

When both salt concentration and temperature are low, ''Leuconostoc mesenteroides'' dominates, producing a mix of acids, alcohol, and aroma compounds. At higher temperatures ''Lactobacillus plantarum'' dominates, which produces primarily lactic acid. Many pickles start with ''Leuconostoc'', and change to ''Lactobacillus'' with higher acidity.

History

Ancient history

Pickling with vinegar likely originated in ancient Mesopotamia around 2400 BCE. There is archaeological evidence of cucumber in 2030 BCE. Pickling vegetables in vinegar continued developing in the Middle East region before spreading to the Maghreb, Sicily, and Spain. From Spain, it spread to the Americas. Fermented salt pickling reportedly originated in China.

There is sufficient archaeological evidence that pickling was also practiced in Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece, and throughout the Roman Empire. The Ancient Egyptian pharaoh Cleopatra was known to credit the pickles in her diet for her good health and beauty. Roman emperors were also known to make pickles a part of their troops' diets, with the belief it would make them stronger and more fit for battle.

Although the Ancient Greeks and Romans had been using dill for extensively longer periods, the use of pickling in Western Europe began around 900 AD when the herb arrived from its native Sumatra through trading routes.

Age of Exploration

Pickling was used as a way to preserve food for out-of-season use and for long journeys, especially by sea. Salt pork and salt beef were common staple food, staples for sailors before the days of steam engines. Although the process was invented to preserve foods, pickles are also made and eaten because people enjoy the resulting flavors. Pickling may also improve the nutritional value of food by introducing B vitamins produced by bacteria.

Etymology

The English term "pickle" first appears around 1400 CE. It originates from the Middle English ''pikel'', a spicy sauce served with meat or fish, borrowed from Middle Dutch or Middle Low German Wikt:pekel#Dutch, pekel ("brine") but later referred to preserving in brine or vinegar.

In world cuisines

Asia

South Asia

South Asia has a large variety of pickles (known as ''achar'' (अचार, اچار) in Nepali, Assamese, Bengali, Hindi (अचार), Punjabi, Gujarati, Urdu (اچار) ''uppinakaayi'' in Kannada, ''lonacha'' (लोणचं) in Marathi, ''uppilittathu'' or ''achar'' in Malayalam, ''oorukai'' in Tamil language, Tamil, pacchadi(పచ్చడి) or ''ooragaya(ఊరగాయ)'' in Telugu language, Telugu, which are mainly made from varieties of mango, Preserved lemon, lemon, Pickled lime, lime, gongura (a sour leafy shrub), tamarind, Indian gooseberry (amla), and chilli. Vegetables such as eggplant, carrots, cauliflower, tomato, bitter gourd, green tamarind, ginger, garlic, onion, and citron are also occasionally used. These fruits and vegetables are mixed with ingredients such as salt, spices, and vegetable oils. The pickling process is completed by placing filled jars in the sun where they mature in the sun. The sun's heat destroys moulds and microbes which could spoil the pickles.

In Pakistan, pickles are known locally as ''achaar'' (in Urdu language, Urdu اچار) and come in a variety of flavours. A popular item is the traditional mixed Hyderabadi pickle, a common delicacy prepared from an assortment of fruits (most notably mangoes) and vegetables blended with selected spices. Although the origin of the word is ambiguous, the word āchār is widely considered to be of Persian language, Persian origin. Āchār in Persian is defined as 'powdered or salted meats, pickles, or fruits, preserved in salt, vinegar, honey, sugar or syrup.'

In Sri Lanka, a date and shallot pickle ''achcharu'' is traditionally prepared from carrots, chilli powder, shallots and ground dates mixed with garlic, crushed fresh ginger, green chilis, mustard seeds and vinegar, and left to sit in a clay pot.

Indian pickles are mostly prepared in three ways: salt/brine, oil, and vinegar, with mango pickle being most popular among all.

Southeast Asia

Singapore, Indonesian and Malaysian pickles, called ''acar'' are typically made out of cucumber, carrot, bird's eye chilies, and shallots, these items being seasoned with vinegar, sugar and salt. Fruits, such as papaya and pineapple, are also sometimes pickled. In Malaysia, it's common for pickles to be made in brine (usually made with sugar or starchy water to provide the best environment for fermentation). These pickles, known locally as ''jeruk,'' are made from unripe mango, papaya, pineapple and lime. Eaten with a meal, or on its own as a snack, ''jeruk'' is especially popular among children.

In the Philippines, ''pickling'' is a common method of preserving food, with many commonly eaten foods pickled, traditionally done using large earthen jars. The process is known as ''buro'' or ''binuro''. Pickling was a common method of preserving a large variety of foods such as fish throughout the archipelago before the advent of refrigeration, but its popularity is now confined to vegetables and fruits. ''Atchara'' is primarily made out of julienned green papaya, carrots, and shallots, seasoned with cloves of garlic and vinegar; but could include ginger, bell peppers, Daikon, white radishes, cucumbers or bamboo shoots. Pickled unripe mangoes or ''burong mangga'', unripe tomatoes, Psidium guajava, guavas, jicama, bitter gourd and other fruit and vegetables still retain their appeal. Siling labuyo, sometimes with garlic and red onions, is also pickled in bottled vinegar and is a staple Philippine condiments, condiment in Philippines, Filipino cuisine.

In Vietnamese cuisine, vegetable pickles are called ("salted vegetables") or ("sour vegetables"). or is made from a variety of fruits and vegetables, including , eggplant, Napa cabbage, kohlrabi, carrots, radishes, papaya, cauliflower, and . made from carrots and radishes are commonly added to sandwiches. is made by pressing and sun-drying vegetables such as and gai choy. is a specialty of Nghệ An Province, Nghệ An and Hà Tĩnh Province, Hã Tĩnh provinces made from jackfruit.

In Burma, tea leaves are pickled to produce lahpet, which has strong social and cultural importance.
Lahpet thoke (tea leaf salad) is a popular dish made with fermented tea leaves, garlic, peanuts, sesame seeds, dried shrimp, and other seasonings. It is often served as a delicacy at social gatherings and plays a role in traditional ceremonies. The tradition of pickling tea leaves dates back centuries and is unique to Burmese cuisine.

East Asia

A wide variety of foods are pickled throughout East Asia. The pickles are often sweet, salty, and/or spicy and preserved in sweetened solutions or oil.

China is home to first documented origins of fermented salt pickles, based upon a poem written around 7th century BCE. The practice of pickling then spread across Asia, consisting of a large variety of vegetables, including radish, ''Chinese cabbage, baicai'' (Chinese cabbage, notably ''suan cai'', ''pao cai'', and Tianjin preserved vegetable), ''zha cai'', chili pepper (e.g. ''duo jiao''), and Pickled cucumber, cucumbers, among many others.

Japanese ''tsukemono'' (pickled foods) are made from a variety of techniques, the oldest and easiest being ''Shio-zuke'' which translates to ''salt pickles''. This method tends to be the most widely used, and a version of this method called ''ichiyazuke'' (overnight pickle) which as the name indiates is a sped-up pickling process (using salt) that can be completed overnight and ready to serve the next day.Reid, Libby (August 2008). ''TSUKEMONO: A Look at Japanese Pickling Techniques'' (PDF). Kanagawa International Foundation. p. 4. Archived from the original on 2010-11-24. ''Umeboshi,'' another one of the salt-preserved tsukemono, is known as the Japanese plum but taste-wise is closer in comparison to an apricot. In Japanese, 'boshi' stems off the root verb meaning "to dry" because after the Umeboshi is pickled, it dries out in sunlight for 3-5 days (although some recipes recommend putting the fruit back into brine at night, to prevent molding).

In Korea one of the most notable pickled foods is kimchi, which is a Korean side dish made of pickled vegetables. Kimchi is primarily consists of napa cabbage (''baechu'' ) but is also commonly mixed with radish, green onions, garlic, ginger and red chili powder.

Western Asia

In Iranian cuisine, Iran, Turkish cuisine, Turkey, Arab cuisine, Arab countries, the Balkan cuisine, Balkans, and the Caucasian cuisine, South Caucasus, pickles (called ''torshi'' in Persian language, Persian, ''turşu'' in Turkish language and ''mekhallel'' in Arabic language, Arabic) are a pickled mix of cucumbers, and turnips, onions, carrots, olives or other regional vegetables. The Persian word ''torshi'' comes from the root word torsh''' which translates in english to 'sour.'

Sauerkraut, as well as cabbage pickled in vinegar, with carrot and other vegetables is commonly consumed as a kosher food, kosher dish in Israeli cuisine, Israel and is considered pareve, meaning that it contains no meat or dairy so it can be consumed with either.

Europe

Central and Eastern Europe

In Hungarian cuisine, Hungary, the main meal ''(lunch)'' usually includes some kind of pickles ''(savanyúság)'', but pickles are also commonly consumed at other times of the day. The most commonly consumed pickles are sauerkraut ''(savanyú káposzta)'', Pickled cucumber#Hungarian, pickled cucumbers and Pickled pepper, peppers, and ''csalamádé'', but tomatoes, carrots, beetroot, baby corn, onions, garlic, certain squashes and melons, and a few fruits such as plums and apples are used to make pickles too. Stuffed pickles are specialties, usually made of peppers or melons pickled after being stuffed with a cabbage filling. Pickled plum stuffed with garlic is a unique Hungarian type of pickle just like ''csalamádé'' and leavened cucumber ''(kovászos uborka)''. ''Csalamádé'' is a type of mixed pickle made of cabbage, cucumber, paprika, onion, carrot, tomatoes, and bay leaf mixed up with vinegar as the fermenting agent. Leavened cucumber, unlike other types of pickled cucumbers that are around all year long, is rather a Silly season, seasonal pickle produced in the summer. Cucumbers, spices, herbs, and slices of bread are put in a glass jar with salt water and kept in direct sunlight for a few days. The yeast from the bread, along with other pickling agents and spices fermented under the hot sun, give the cucumbers a unique flavor, texture, and slight carbonation. Its juice can be used instead of carbonated water to make a special type of spritzer ''('Újházy fröccs')''. It is common for Hungarian households to produce their own pickles. Different regions or towns have their special recipes unique to them. Among them all, the Vecsési sauerkraut ''(Vecsési savanyú káposzta)'' is the most famous.

Romanian cuisine, Romanian pickles (murături) are made out of beetroot, pickled cucumber, cucumbers, green tomatoes (''gogonele''), carrots, cabbage, garlic, sauerkraut, pickled pepper, bell peppers, melons, Edible mushroom, mushrooms, turnips, celery and cauliflower. Meat, like pork, can also be preserved in salt and lard.

Polish cuisine, Polish cuisine is centered around pickled foods. Pickled gherkins are enjoyed in a multitude of ways; a snack, a sidedish, a 'chaser' for vodka, and also often used to pickled-gherkin soup.

Czech cuisine, Czech cuisine incorporates many pickled fruits and vegetables as a way to preserve produce that in their climate are mostly seasonal. A unique aspect of Czech cuisine is the dish 'beer cheese' which is cheese that is pickled in beer.

In Slovak cuisine, Slovak tradition, pickling practices are quite similar to ones used in the Czech Republic. June and July is prime pickling season in Slovakia, where most people are bottling up their fruits and vegetables to preserve for enjoyment in the wintertime.

Caucasian cuisine, North Caucasian, Russian cuisine, Russian, Ukrainian cuisine, Ukrainian and Belarusian cuisine, Belarusian pickled items include beets, mushrooms, tomatoes, sauerkraut, cucumbers, ramsons, garlic, eggplant (which is typically stuffed with julienned carrots), custard Squash (fruit), squash, and watermelon. Garden produce is commonly pickled using salt, dill, Blackcurrant, blackcurrant leaves, Bay leaf, bay leaves and garlic and is stored in a cool, dark place. The leftover brine (called ''rassol'' (рассол) in Russian language, Russian) has a number of culinary uses in these countries, especially for cooking traditional soups, such as shchi, rassolnik, and solyanka. ''Rassol'', especially cucumber or sauerkraut rassol, is also a favorite traditional remedy against morning hangover.

Southern Europe

An Italy, Italian pickled vegetable dish is giardiniera, which comes from the root word "giardino" and translates in english to garden. Typical inclusions to giardiniera are carrots, celery, peppers, onions, cauliflower and whatever other vegetables were found in the garden.

In the Middle East and Balkans, Balkan Region, pickled vegetables (most commonly used are peppers, carrots and cauliflower) are known regionally as ''turshi'', ''tursija, torshi'' or ''turshu.'' This dish can be enjoyed on its own, in sandwiches or salads, and as a side to popular dishes like Lahm Bi Ajeen. In Greece, pickles, called ''τουρσί (pronounced toursi)'' are made out of carrots, celery, eggplants stuffed with diced carrots, cauliflower, tomatoes, and Capsicum, peppers.

In Spain, pickles, known as "encurtidos", are mainly made with olives, cucumbers, onions and green peppers ("guindillas" or "piparras"). "Banderillas" are small pieces of pickled cucumber and green pepper, along with olives and anchovies, mounted into toothpicks, and are very popular as Tapas.

Northern Europe

In British cuisine, Britain, pickled onions and pickled eggs are often sold in public house, pubs and Fish and chips, fish and chip shops. Pickled beetroot, Pickled Walnuts, walnuts, and gherkins, and condiments such as Branston (brand), Branston Pickle and piccalilli are typically eaten as an accompaniment to pork pies and cold meats, sandwiches or a ploughman's lunch. Other popular pickles in the UK are pickled mussels, cockle (bivalve), cockles, red cabbage, mango chutney, sauerkraut, and olives. Rollmops are also quite widely available under a range of names from various producers both within and out of the UK.

Pickled fish, specifically herring and Salmon as food, salmon, are popular in Scandinavia. Pickled cucumbers, beets and radishes are used as condiments for several traditional dishes. Pickled capers are also common in Scandinavian cuisine.

North America

In the United States and Canada, pickled cucumbers (most often referred to simply as "pickles"), olives, and sauerkraut are most commonly seen, although pickles common in other nations are also very widely available. In Canada and the US, there may be a distinction made between gherkins (usually smaller), and pickles (larger pickled cucumbers).

Sweet pickles made with fruit are more common in the cuisine of the American South. The pickling "syrup" is made with vinegar, brown sugar, and whole spices such as cinnamon sticks, allspice and cloves. Fruit pickles can be made with an assortment of fruits including watermelon, cantaloupe, Concord grapes and peaches.

Canadian pickling is similar to that of Britain. Through the winter, pickling is an important method of food preservation. Pickled cucumbers, onions, and eggs are common. Pickled egg and pickled sausage make popular pub snacks in much of English Canada. Chow-chow (food), Chow-chow is a tart vegetable mix popular in the Maritime Provinces and the Southern United States, similar to piccalilli. Pickled fish is commonly seen, as in Scotland, and kippers may be seen for breakfast, as well as plentiful smoked salmon. Meat is often also pickled or preserved in different brines throughout the winter, most prominently in the harsh climate of Newfoundland.

Pickled eggs are common in many regions of the United States. Pickled herring is available in the Upper Midwest. Giardiniera, a mixture of pickled peppers, celery and olives, is a popular condiment in Chicago and other Midwestern cities with large Italian-American populations, and is often consumed with Italian beef sandwiches.

Pennsylvania Dutch Country has a strong tradition of pickled foods, including chow-chow and pickled beet egg, red beet eggs. In the Southern United States, pickled okra and watermelon, watermelon rind are popular, as are deep-fried pickles and Pickled pigs' feet, pickled pig's feet, pickled chicken eggs, pickled quail eggs, pickled garden vegetables and pickled sausage.

Various pickled vegetables, fish, or eggs may make a side dish to a Canadian lunch or dinner. Popular pickles in the Pacific Northwest include pickled asparagus and green beans. Pickled fruits like blueberries and early green strawberries are paired with meat dishes in restaurants.

Thanksgiving

Pickles were part of Thanksgiving (United States), Thanksgiving dinner traditions as early as 1827. The first mention of pickles at Thanksgiving comes from Sarah Josepha Hale's novel ''Northwood (book), Northwood''. (Hale is best known for her successful campaign to have Thanksgiving recognized as a national holiday in the United States.) Pickled peaches, coleslaw and other mixed pickles continue to be served alongside cranberry sauce at Thanksgiving dinner in present times.

Mexico, Central America, and South America

In Mexico, chili peppers, particularly of the Jalapeño and serrano pepper, serrano varieties, are pickled with vegetables such as, onions, carrots and herbs form common condiments. Pickled peppers are canned and sold in supermarkets under the name "en escabeche."

In the Mesoamerican region, pickling is known as encurtido or "curtido" for short. The pickles or "curtidos" as known in Latin America are served cold, as an appetizer, as a side dish or as a tapas dish in Spain. In several Central American countries it is prepared with cabbage, onions, carrots, lemon, vinegar, oregano, and salt. In Mexico, "curtido" consists of carrots, onions, and jalapeño peppers and used to accompany meals common in taquerías and restaurants.

Process

In traditional pickling, fruit or vegetables are submerged in brine (20–40 grams/L of salt (3.2–6.4 oz/imp gal or 2.7–5.3 oz/US gal)), or shredded and salted as in sauerkraut preparation, and held underwater by flat stones layered on top. Alternatively, a lid with an airtrap or a tight lid may be used if the lid is able to release pressure which may result from carbon dioxide buildup. Mold or (white) kahm yeast#Nutrition and growth, yeast may form on the surface; kahm yeast is mostly harmless but can impart an off taste and may be removed without affecting the pickling process.

In chemical pickling, the fruits or vegetables to be pickled are placed in a sterilized jar along with brine, vinegar, or both, as well as spices, and are then allowed to mature until the desired taste is obtained.

The food can be pre-soaked in brine before transferring to vinegar. This reduces the water content of the food, which would otherwise dilute the vinegar. This method is particularly useful for fruit and vegetables with a high natural water content.

In commercial pickling, a preservative such as sodium benzoate or EDTA may also be added to enhance shelf life. In fermentation pickling, the food itself produces the preservation agent, typically by a process involving ''Lactobacillus'' bacteria that produce lactic acid as the preservative agent.

Alum, short for aluminum sulfate, is used in pickling to promote crisp texture and is approved, though not recommended, as a food additive by the United States Food and Drug Administration. Another common crisping agent is calcium chloride, which evolved from the practice of using pickling lime. See also firming agent.

"Refrigerator pickles" are unfermented pickles made by Marination, marinating fruit or vegetables in a seasoned vinegar solution. They must be stored under refrigeration or undergo canning to achieve long-term storage.

Japanese Tsukemono#Making tsukemono, Tsukemono use a variety of pickling ingredients depending on their Tsukemono#Making tsukemono, type, and are produced by combining these ingredients with the vegetables to be preserved and putting the mixture under pressure.

Possible health hazards of pickled vegetables

In 1993, the World Health Organization listed traditional Asian pickled vegetables as IARC group 2B, possible carcinogens, and the ''British Journal of Cancer'' released an online 2009 meta-analysis of research on pickles as increasing the risks of esophageal cancer. The report, citing limited data in a statistical meta analysis, indicates a potential two-fold increased risk of esophageal cancer associated with Asian pickled vegetable consumption. Results from the research are described as having "high heterogeneity" and the study said that further well-designed prospective studies were warranted. However, their results stated "The majority of subgroup analyses showed a statistically significant association between consuming pickled vegetables and Oesophageal Squamous Cell Carcinoma".

Consuming pickled vegetables is also associated with a 28% increase in the risk of stomach cancer.

The 2009 meta-analysis reported heavy infestation of pickled vegetables with fungi. Some common fungi can facilitate the formation of Nitroso, N-nitroso compounds, which are strong esophageal carcinogens in several animal models. Roussin's red salt, Roussin red methyl ester, a non-alkylating nitroso compound with tumour-promoting effect in vitro, was identified in pickles from Linzhou, Henan (formerly Linxian) in much higher concentrations than in samples from low-incidence areas. Fumonisin mycotoxins have been shown to cause liver and kidney tumours in rodents.

A 2017 study in ''Chinese Journal of Cancer'' has linked salted vegetables ( common in Chinese cuisine) to a fourfold increase in nasopharynx cancer. The researchers believe possible mechanisms include production of nitrosamines (a type of N-nitroso compound) by fermentation and activation of Epstein–Barr virus by fermentation products.

Historically, pickling caused health concerns for reasons associated with copper salts, as explained in the mid-19th century ''The English and Australian Cookery Book'': "The evidence of the Lancet commissioner (Dr. Hassall) and Mr. Blackwell (of the eminent firm of Crosse and Blackwell) went to prove that the pickles sold in the shops are nearly always artificially coloured, and are thus rendered highly unwholesome, if not actually poisonous."

Risk reduction

Reduction of suspected carcinogens from pickled products is a subject of active research.

* Fungi are of interest both for spoilage prevention and reduction of mycotoxins. Some pickle cultures are said to contain bacteria producing natural antifungals.
* Nitrites, responsible for the creation of N-nitroso compounds, are reduced by low pH and/or high temperature. Inclusion of a porcini enzyme (or the whole mushroom) also reduces nitrite content.

Gallery

File:Ogórki w trakcie kiszenia.jpg, Pickled cucumbers
File:Aringa-marinato.jpg, Pickled herring
File:Pickled mushrooms....jpg, Pickled mushrooms
Jonjoli bladdernut flower pickles.jpg, Pickled Staphylea colchica, bladdernut flower
File:Aceitunas en plato.jpg, Pickled olives
File:Pickled Vegetables.JPG, Pickled vegetables
File:Pickled fruits and veggies.jpg, Fermented homemade pickled cucumber, chili pepper, garlic, and apple in the hot climate of Indonesia

See also

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* Curing (food preservation)
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* Mixed pickle
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* Smoking (cooking)

References

External links

Fermented Fruits and Vegetables: A Global Perspective
��Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

National Center for Home Food Preservation: How do I...Pickle

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Pickles,
Food preservation
Cooking techniques
World cuisine
Culinary terminology
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