The Philadelphia campaign (1777–1778) was a

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military campaign during the

American Revolutionary War The American Revolutionary War (April 19, 1775 – September 3, 1783), also known as the Revolutionary War or American War of Independence, was the armed conflict that comprised the final eight years of the broader American Revolution, in which Am ...

designed to gain control of

Philadelphia Philadelphia ( ), colloquially referred to as Philly, is the List of municipalities in Pennsylvania, most populous city in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania and the List of United States cities by population, sixth-most populous city in the Unit ...

, the

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-era capital where the

Second Continental Congress The Second Continental Congress (1775–1781) was the meetings of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that united in support of the American Revolution and American Revolutionary War, Revolutionary War, which established American independence ...

convened, formed the

Continental Army The Continental Army was the army of the United Colonies representing the Thirteen Colonies and later the United States during the American Revolutionary War. It was formed on June 14, 1775, by a resolution passed by the Second Continental Co ...

, and appointed

George Washington George Washington (, 1799) was a Founding Fathers of the United States, Founding Father and the first president of the United States, serving from 1789 to 1797. As commander of the Continental Army, Washington led Patriot (American Revoluti ...

as its commander in 1775, and later authored and unanimously adopted the

Declaration of Independence A declaration of independence is an assertion by a polity in a defined territory that it is independent and constitutes a state. Such places are usually declared from part or all of the territory of another state or failed state, or are breaka ...

the following year, on July 4, 1776, which formalized and escalated the war. In the Philadelphia campaign, British General William Howe failed to draw the

under

into a battle in North Jersey. Howe then embarked his army on transports, and landed them at the northern end of the

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, where they began advancing north toward Philadelphia. Washington prepared defenses against Howe's movements at Brandywine Creek, but was flanked and beaten back in the Battle of Brandywine on September 11, 1777. After further skirmishes and maneuvers, Howe entered and occupied Philadelphia. Washington then unsuccessfully attacked one of Howe's garrisons at Germantown prior to retreating to Valley Forge for the winter, where he and 12,000 faced the harshest winter of the war, including insufficient food and clothing. Howe's campaign was controversial because, while he succeeded in capturing the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia, he proceeded slowly and did not aid the concurrent campaign of John Burgoyne further north, which ended in disaster for the British in the Battles of Saratoga and brought

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into the war. Howe resigned during the occupation of Philadelphia and was replaced by his second-in-command, General Sir Henry Clinton. In 1778, Clinton was ordered to evacuate Philadelphia and consolidate his troops in

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, in anticipation of a combined Franco-American attack there. Many Loyalists also left Philadelphia, fearing persecution. Washington's forces shadowed the withdrawing

British Army The British Army is the principal Army, land warfare force of the United Kingdom. the British Army comprises 73,847 regular full-time personnel, 4,127 Brigade of Gurkhas, Gurkhas, 25,742 Army Reserve (United Kingdom), volunteer reserve perso ...

until they clashed at the Battle of Monmouth, one of the war's largest battles. At the end of the Philadelphia campaign in 1778, the two armies found themselves in roughly the same strategic positions that they had been in before Howe launched the attack on Philadelphia.

History

British plan to capture Philadelphia

Following William Howe's capture of

and

's success in the Battles of Trenton and Princeton, the two armies settled into an uneasy stalemate in the winter months of early 1777. While punctuated by numerous skirmishes, the British Army continued to occupy outposts at

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and Perth Amboy in

New Jersey New Jersey is a U.S. state, state located in both the Mid-Atlantic States, Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern United States, Northeastern regions of the United States. Located at the geographic hub of the urban area, heavily urbanized Northeas ...

. In 1777, Howe proposed to George Germain, the British civilian official responsible for war's conduct, that British expedition be launched with the goal of capturing

, the seat of the rebellious

. Germain approved Howe's plan, although with fewer troops than Howe requested. He also approved plans by John Burgoyne for an expedition to "force his way to Albany" from

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. Germain's approval of Howe's expedition included the expectation that Howe would be able to assist Burgoyne, effecting a junction at Albany between the forces of Burgoyne and troops that Howe would send north from

. Howe decided in early April 1777 against taking the British Army over land to Philadelphia through

since this route would entail having to cross of the broad

Delaware River The Delaware River is a major river in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States and is the longest free-flowing (undammed) river in the Eastern United States. From the meeting of its branches in Hancock, New York, the river flows for a ...

under hostile conditions and likely require the transportation or construction of necessary watercraft.Martin, p. 15 Howe's plan, sent to Germain on April 2, isolated Burgoyne from any possibility of significant support, since Howe instead would take the British Army to Philadelphia by sea, and the New York garrison would be too small for any significant offensive operations up the

Hudson River The Hudson River, historically the North River, is a river that flows from north to south largely through eastern New York (state), New York state. It originates in the Adirondack Mountains at Henderson Lake (New York), Henderson Lake in the ...

to assist Burgoyne. Washington realized that Howe "certainly ought in good policy to endeavor to Cooperate with Genl. Burgoyne" and was baffled why he did not do so. Washington at the time and historians ever since have wondered why Howe was not in place to come to the relief of Burgoyne, whose invasion army from Canada was surrounded and captured by the Americans in October. Historians agree that Lord Germain did a poor job in coordinating the two campaigns. Following Howe's capture of New York City and Washington's retreat across the Delaware River, Howe wrote to Germain on December 20, 1776, proposing an elaborate set of campaigns for 1777. These included operations to gain control of the Hudson River, expand operations from the base at

Newport, Rhode Island Newport is a seaside city on Aquidneck Island in Rhode Island, United States. It is located in Narragansett Bay, approximately southeast of Providence, Rhode Island, Providence, south of Fall River, Massachusetts, south of Boston, and nort ...

, and take Philadelphia, the seat of the rebel Continental Congress. The latter Howe saw as attractive, since Washington was then just north of the city: Howe wrote that he was "persuaded the Principal Army should act offensively gainst Philadelphia where the enemy's chief strength lies." Germain acknowledged that this plan was particularly "well digested", but it called for more men than Germain was prepared to provide. After the setbacks in New Jersey, Howe in mid-January 1777 proposed operations against Philadelphia that included an overland expedition and a sea-based attack, thinking this might lead to a decisive victory over the Continental Army. This plan was developed to the extent that in April Howe's army was seen constructing pontoon bridges; Washington, lodged in his winter quarters at

Morristown, New Jersey Morristown () is a Town (New Jersey), town in and the county seat of Morris County, New Jersey, Morris County, in the U.S. state of New Jersey.

, thought they were for eventual use on the Delaware River. However, by mid-May Howe had apparently abandoned the idea of an overland expedition: "I propose to invade Pennsylvania by sea ... we must probably abandon the Jersies." Howe's decision to not assist Burgoyne may have been rooted in his perception that Burgoyne would receive credit for a successful campaign, even if it required Howe's help. This would not help Howe's reputation as much as if the Philadelphia campaign succeeded. Historian John Alden notes the jealousies among various British leaders, saying, "It is likely that owewas as jealous of Burgoyne as Burgoyne was of him and that he was not eager to do anything which might assist his junior up the ladder of military renown." Along the same lines Don Higginbotham concludes that in Howe's view, " he Hudson River campaignwas Burgoyne's whole show, and consequently he owewanted little to do with it. With regard to Burgoyne's army, he would do only what was required of him (virtually nothing)." Howe himself wrote to Burgoyne on July 17: "My intention is for Pennsylvania, where I expect to meet Washington, but if he goes to the northward contrary to my expectations, and you can keep him at bay, be assured I shall soon be after him to relieve you." He sailed from New York not long after. Washington's

had been encamped primarily at

Morristown, New Jersey Morristown () is a Town (New Jersey), town in and the county seat of Morris County, New Jersey, Morris County, in the U.S. state of New Jersey.

, although there was a forward base at Bound Brook, only a few miles from the nearest British outposts. In part as a retaliatory measure against the ongoing skirmishes, General Charles Cornwallis executed a raid against that position in April 1777, in which he very nearly captured the outpost's commander,

Benjamin Lincoln Benjamin Lincoln (January 24, 1733 ( O.S. January 13, 1733) – May 9, 1810) was an American army officer. He served as a major general in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. Lincoln was involved in three major surrender ...

. In response to this raid, Washington moved his army forward to a strongly fortified position at Middlebrook in the Watchung Mountains that commanded likely British land routes toward Philadelphia. For reasons that are not entirely clear, Howe moved a sizable army to Somerset Court House, south of

New Brunswick, New Jersey New Brunswick is a city (New Jersey), city in and the county seat of Middlesex County, New Jersey, Middlesex County, in the U.S. state of New Jersey.Battle of Short Hills. Howe then withdrew his troops to Perth Amboy, embarked them on transports, and sailed out of New York harbor, destined for Philadelphia. Washington did not know where Howe was going. Considering the possibility that Howe was again feinting, and would actually sail his army up the Hudson to join with Burgoyne, he remained near New York. Only when he received word that Howe's fleet had reached the mouth of the Delaware, did he need to consider the defense of Philadelphia. However, the fleet did not enter the Delaware, instead continuing south. Uncertain of Howe's goal, which could be

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, he considered moving north to assist in the defense of the Hudson, when he learned that the fleet had entered the

. In August, he began moving his troops south to prepare the city's defenses. General John Sullivan, who commanded the Continental Army's troops facing

Staten Island Staten Island ( ) is the southernmost of the boroughs of New York City, five boroughs of New York City, coextensive with Richmond County and situated at the southernmost point of New York (state), New York. The borough is separated from the ad ...

, had, in order to capitalize on perceived weaknesses of the British position there following Howe's departure, attempted a raid on August 22, that failed with the Battle of Staten Island.

Capture of Philadelphia

In late August, British Army General Howe landed 15,000 troops at the northern end of the

, about 55 miles (90 km) southwest of

. Continental Army General Washington positioned 11,000 men between Howe and Philadelphia but was outflanked and driven back at the Battle of Brandywine on September 11, 1777. The Continental Army suffered over 1,000 casualties, and the British lost about half that number. The

Continental Congress The Continental Congress was a series of legislature, legislative bodies, with some executive function, for the Thirteen Colonies of British America, Great Britain in North America, and the newly declared United States before, during, and after ...

was once again forced to abandon Philadelphia, relocating first to

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, and later

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. British and Revolutionary forces maneuvered around each other west of Philadelphia for the next several days, clashing in minor encounters such as the abortive Battle of the Clouds and the so-called " Paoli Massacre." On September 26, Howe finally outmaneuvered Washington and marched into Philadelphia unopposed. Capture of the rebel capital did not bring the end to the rebellion as the British thought it would. In 18th-century warfare, it was normal that the side who captured the opposing force's capital city won the war, but the Revolutionary War would continue for six more years until 1783 because of the rebels'

unconventional warfare Unconventional warfare (UW) is broadly defined as "military and quasi-military operations other than conventional warfare" and may use covert forces or actions such as subversion, diversion, sabotage, espionage, biowarfare, sanctions, propaga ...

tactics. After capturing Philadelphia, the British garrisoned about 9,000 troops in Germantown, five miles (8 km) north of Philadelphia. On October 2, the British captured Fort Billingsport, on the

, to clear a line of '' chevaux de frise'' obstacles in the river. The idea of placing those obstacles is attributed to

Benjamin Franklin Benjamin Franklin (April 17, 1790) was an American polymath: a writer, scientist, inventor, statesman, diplomat, printer, publisher and Political philosophy, political philosopher.#britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Wood, 2021 Among the m ...

, and they were designed by Robert Smith. An undefended line had already been taken at Marcus Hook, and a third line was nearer Philadelphia, guarded by Fort Mifflin and Fort Mercer. Washington unsuccessfully attacked Germantown on October 4, and then retreated to watch and wait for the British to counterattack. Meanwhile, the British needed to open a supply route along the Delaware River to support their occupation of Philadelphia. After a prolonged defense of the river by Commodore John Hazelwood and the Continental and Pennsylvania Navies, the British finally secured the river by taking forts Mifflin and Mercer in mid-November, although Mercer was not taken until after a humiliating repulse. In early December, Washington successfully repelled a series of probes by General Howe in the Battle of White Marsh. Washington's problems at this time were not just with the British. In the Conway Cabal, some politicians and officers were unhappy with Washington's performance in the campaign and began secretively discussing Washington's removal. Offended by the behind-the-scenes maneuvering, Washington laid the whole matter openly before Continental Congress. In response, his supporters rallied behind him, and Washington's leadership was reassured.

Valley Forge and Battle of Monmouth

Washington and his army encamped at Valley Forge in December 1777, about 20 miles (32 km) from

, where they stayed for the next six months. Over the winter, 2,500 men (out of 10,000) died from disease and exposure. However, the army eventually emerged from Valley Forge in good order, thanks in part to a training program supervised by Baron von Steuben. Meanwhile, there was a shakeup in the British command. General Howe resigned his command, and was replaced by Lieutenant General Sir Henry Clinton as commander-in-chief. France's entry into the war forced a change in British war strategy, and Clinton was ordered by the government to abandon Philadelphia and defend

, now vulnerable to French naval power. As the British were preparing their withdrawal, Washington sent out Lafayette on a reconnaissance mission. Lafayette narrowly escaped a British ambush at the Battle of Barren Hill. The British sent out a peace commission headed by the Earl of Carlisle, whose offers, which were made in June 1778 as Clinton was preparing to abandon Philadelphia, were rejected by the

. Clinton shipped many Loyalists and most of his heavy equipment by sea to New York, and evacuated Philadelphia on June 18, after 266 days of British occupation. Washington's army shadowed Clinton's, and Washington successfully forced a battle at Monmouth Courthouse on June 28, the last major battle in the North. Washington's second-in-command, General Charles Lee, who led the advance force of the army, ordered a controversial retreat early in the battle, allowing Clinton's army to regroup. By July, Clinton was in New York City, and Washington was again at

White Plains, New York White Plains is a city in and the county seat of Westchester County, New York, United States. It is an inner suburb of New York City, and a commercial hub of Westchester County, a densely populated suburban county that is home to about one milli ...

. Both armies were back where they had been two years earlier.

Aftermath

Shortly after the British arrived in

, a French fleet arrived outside its harbor, leading to a flurry of action by both sides. The French and Americans decided to make an attempt on the British garrison at

; this first attempt at coordination was a notable failure. Under orders from London, Clinton reallocated some of his troops to the

West Indies The West Indies is an island subregion of the Americas, surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea, which comprises 13 independent island country, island countries and 19 dependent territory, dependencies in thr ...

, and began a program of coastal raiding from

Massachusetts Massachusetts ( ; ), officially the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, is a U.S. state, state in the New England region of the Northeastern United States. It borders the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Maine to its east, Connecticut and Rhode ...

. In and around New York City, Clinton and Washington's respective armies watched each other and skirmished, including in two major battles, the 1779

Battle of Stony Point A battle is an occurrence of combat in warfare between opposing military units of any number or size. A war usually consists of multiple battles. In general, a battle is a military engagement that is well defined in duration, area, and force ...

and the 1780 Battle of Connecticut Farms. Clinton considered again attacking the colonial capital of

, but these attacks never came to fruition. The British also began a wider frontier war organized from

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, using Loyalist and Native American allies. British and French forces engaged each other in the West Indies and in India beginning in 1778, and the 1779 entry of

Spain Spain, or the Kingdom of Spain, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe with territories in North Africa. Featuring the Punta de Tarifa, southernmost point of continental Europe, it is the largest country in Southern Eur ...

into the war widened the global aspects of the war even further. In 1780, the British began a " southern strategy" to regain control of the rebelling colonies,John E. Ferling, ''The First of Men: A Life of George Washington'' (2010) ch 9 with the capture of Charleston, South Carolina. This effort would ultimately fail at Yorktown.
Delaware River The Delaware River is a major river in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States and is the longest free-flowing (undammed) river in the Eastern United States. From the meeting of its branches in Hancock, New York, the river flows for a ...

, Forts Mifflin and Mercer and the greater Philadelphia area."> File:Map of Philadelphia during the 1777 Philadelphia Campaign.jpg File:Philadelphia Map, 1777 Philadelphia Campaign2.jpg File:Philadelphia, Red Bank, Fort Mifflin2, 1777.jpg File:HessianMapMudIsland.jpg File:British Revolutionary War map of the Delaware River at Fort Mercer.jpg File:PhiladelCampaignHessianMap.jpg

Notes

References

*Boatner, Mark Mayo, III. ''Encyclopedia of the American Revolution.'' New York: McKay, 1966; revised 1974. . * Ferling, John E. ''The First of Men: A Life of George Washington'' (2010) * Freeman, Douglas Southall. ''Washington'' (1968) ch 12–14 * Higginbotham, Don. ''The War of American Independence'' (1971) * *Martin, David G. ''The Philadelphia Campaign: June 1777–July 1778.'' Conshohocken, PA: Combined Books, 1993. . 2003 Da Capo reprint, .

External links

Animated Maps
9/11/1777 – Battle of Brandywine

Interactive Maps

* ttp://www.history.army.mil/reference/revbib/pao.htm Bibliography of the Continental Army Operations in the Pennsylvania Theater compiled by the

United States Army Center of Military History The United States Army Center of Military History (CMH) is a directorate within the United States Army Training and Doctrine Command. The Institute of Heraldry remains within the Office of the Administrative Assistant to the Secretary of the Arm ...

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