critical theory Critical theory is a social, historical, and political school of thought and philosophical perspective which centers on analyzing and challenging systemic power relations in society, arguing that knowledge, truth, and social structures are ...

, pharmakon is a concept introduced by

Jacques Derrida Jacques Derrida (; ; born Jackie Élie Derrida;Peeters (2013), pp. 12–13. See also 15 July 1930 – 9 October 2004) was a French Algerian philosopher. He developed the philosophy of deconstruction, which he utilized in a number of his texts, ...

. It is derived from the Greek source term φάρμακον (''phármakon''), a word that can mean either remedy, poison, or scapegoat. In his essay " Plato's Pharmacy", Derrida explores the notion that

writing Writing is the act of creating a persistent representation of language. A writing system includes a particular set of symbols called a ''script'', as well as the rules by which they encode a particular spoken language. Every written language ...

is a ''pharmakon'' in a composite sense of these meanings as "a means of producing something". Derrida uses ''pharmakon'' to highlight the connection between its traditional meanings and the philosophical notion of indeterminacy. " anslational or philosophical efforts to favor or purge a particular signification of ''pharmakon'' nd to identify it as either "cure" ''or'' "poison"actually do interpretive violence to what would otherwise remain undecidable." Whereas a straightforward view on Plato's treatment of writing (in '' Phaedrus'') suggests that writing is to be ''rejected'' as strictly poisonous to the ability to think for oneself in

dialogue Dialogue (sometimes spelled dialog in American and British English spelling differences, American English) is a written or spoken conversational exchange between two or more people, and a literature, literary and theatrical form that depicts suc ...

with others (i.e. to anamnesis).

Bernard Stiegler Bernard Stiegler (; 1 April 1952 – 5 August 2020) was a French philosopher. He was head of the Institut de recherche et d'innovation (IRI), which he founded in 2006 at the Centre Georges-Pompidou. He was also founder of the political and c ...

argues that "the hypomnesic appears as that which constitutes the ''condition'' of the anamnesic"—in other words, externalised time-bound communication is necessary for original creative thought, in part because it is the primordial support of culture. However, with reference to the fourth "productive" sense of ''pharmakon'', Kakoliris argues (in contrast to the rendition given by Derrida) that the contention between Theuth and the king in Plato's '' Phaedrus'' is not about whether the ''pharmakon'' of writing is a remedy ''or'' a poison, but rather, the less binary question: whether it is productive of

memory Memory is the faculty of the mind by which data or information is encoded, stored, and retrieved when needed. It is the retention of information over time for the purpose of influencing future action. If past events could not be remembe ...

or remembrance. Indeterminacy and ambiguity are not, on this view, fundamental features of the ''pharmakon'', but rather, of Derrida's deconstructive reading. Relatedly, ''pharmakon'' has been theorised in connection with a broader philosophy of technology, biotechnology, immunology, enhancement, and

addiction Addiction is a neuropsychological disorder characterized by a persistent and intense urge to use a drug or engage in a behavior that produces natural reward, despite substantial harm and other negative consequences. Repetitive drug use can ...

Gregory Bateson Gregory Bateson (9 May 1904 – 4 July 1980) was an English anthropology, anthropologist, social sciences, social scientist, linguistics, linguist, visual anthropology, visual anthropologist, semiotics, semiotician, and cybernetics, cybernetici ...

points out that an important part of the

Alcoholics Anonymous Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) is a global, peer-led Mutual aid, mutual-aid fellowship focused on an abstinence-based recovery model from alcoholism through its spiritually inclined twelve-step program. AA's Twelve Traditions, besides emphasizing anon ...

philosophy is to understand that alcohol plays a curative role for the alcoholic who has not yet begun to dry out. This is not simply a matter of providing an anesthetic, but a means for the alcoholic of "escaping from his own insane premises, which are continually reinforced by the surrounding society." A more benign example is Donald Winnicott's concept of a "

transitional object A comfort object, more formally a transitional object or attachment object, is an item used to provide psychological comfort, especially in unusual or unique situations, or at bedtime for children. Among toddlers, a comfort object often takes th ...

" (such as a

teddy bear A teddy bear, or simply a teddy, is a stuffed toy in the form of a bear. The teddy bear was named by Morris Michtom after the 26th president of the United States, Theodore Roosevelt; it was developed apparently simultaneously in the first deca ...

) that links and attaches child and mother. Even so, the mother must eventually teach the child to detach from this object, lest the child become overly dependent upon it. Stiegler claims that the transitional object is "the origin of works of art and, more generally, of the life of the mind." Emphasizing the third sense of ''pharmakon'' as scapegoat, but touching on the other senses, Boucher and Roussel treat

Quebec Quebec is Canada's List of Canadian provinces and territories by area, largest province by area. Located in Central Canada, the province shares borders with the provinces of Ontario to the west, Newfoundland and Labrador to the northeast, ...

as a ''pharmakon'' in light of the discourse surrounding the Barbara Kay controversy and the

Quebec sovereignty movement The Quebec sovereignty movement (French: ''mouvement souverainiste du Québec'', ) is a political movement advocating for Quebec's independence from Canada. Proponents argue that Quebecers form a distinct nation with a unique culture, language, ...

. Persson uses the several senses of ''pharmakon'' to "pursue a kind of phenomenology of drugs as embodied processes, an approach that foregrounds the productive potential of medicines; their capacity to reconfigure bodies and diseases in multiple, unpredictable ways." Highlighting the notion (from Derrida) that the effect of the ''pharmakon'' is contextual rather than causal, Persson's basic claim – with reference to the body-shape-changing

lipodystrophy Lipodystrophy syndromes are a group of genetic or acquired disorders in which the body is unable to produce and maintain healthy fat tissue. The medical condition is characterized by abnormal or degenerative conditions of the body's adipose tissu ...

experienced by some HIV patients taking anti-retroviral therapy. It may be necessary to distinguish between "pharmacology" that operates in the multiple senses in which that term is understood here, and a further therapeutic response to the (effect of) the ''pharmakon'' in question. Referring to the hypothesis that the use of digital technology – understood as a ''pharmakon'' of

attention Attention or focus, is the concentration of awareness on some phenomenon to the exclusion of other stimuli. It is the selective concentration on discrete information, either subjectively or objectively. William James (1890) wrote that "Atte ...

– is correlated with "

Attention Deficit Disorder Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterised by symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity, and emotional dysregulation that are excessive and pervasive, impairing in multiple con ...

", Stiegler wonders to what degree digital relational technologies can "give birth to new attentional forms". To continue the theme above on a therapeutic response: Vattimo compares interpretation to a virus; in his essay responding to this quote, Zabala says that the virus is onto-theology, and that interpretation is the "most appropriate ''pharmakon'' of onto-theology." Zabala further remarks: "I believe that finding a ''pharmakon'' can be functionally understood as the goal that many post-metaphysical philosophers have given themselves since

Heidegger Martin Heidegger (; 26 September 1889 – 26 May 1976) was a German philosopher known for contributions to phenomenology, hermeneutics, and existentialism. His work covers a range of topics including metaphysics, art, and language. In April ...

, after whom philosophy has become a matter of therapy rather than discovery

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