Morphology
''Peridinium'' is enclosed by cellulose theca and with two flagellates. The composition of the theca is laminaribiose and laminaritriose linking by ''β'' – 1, 4 and ''β'' – 1, 3 linkages. The cell body of ''Peridinium'' is highly polarized and is distinguishable from apical and antapical sides or dorsal and ventral sides. Their theca is divided into epicone and hypocone by the middle region (also called girdle or cingulum). The flagellates have two different directions, one is surrounding the middle region while the other are in the longitudinal groove of hypocone. The chloroplast in ''Peridinium'' is triple membrane, and some plastid-derived organelles like pyrenoid or Eyespot apparatus, eyespot also. This provides the evidence that these organelles originated from secondary endosymbiosis. The inner membrane of mitochondrion is tubular. Trichocyst is a specialized organelle in dinoflagellate which help them defense to predators.Life cycle
''Peridinium'' is a haplontic algae. Most time of ''Peridinium'' are haploid vegetative cells and undergoing asexual or sexual cycle. They only form zygote before dormancy. In asexual cycle, the haploid vegetative cell throws the theca before mitosis and produces two daughter cells by mitosis. During mitosis, the chromosome in their nucleus condenses but the nucleus of endosymbiont doesn’t. After the cleavage furrow starts to separate their nucleus, the nucleus of endosymbiont then passes through the gaps between cleavage furrow and their nucleus. Then the nucleus of endosymbiont was divided by cleavage furrow together. In sexual cycle, they produce gametes as isogamete and the gametes fuse to form planozygotes to get dormancy. After dormancy, the zygote starts to undergo meiosis. The first meiosis produces a two diploid nuclei cell without cytokinesis. An asynchronized nucleus division then occurs in one of the two nuclei. One nucleus undergoing second meiosis before cytokinesis in first meiosis and turns into a trinucleate stage. After it, the cytokinesis of first meiosis is completed, and the trinucleate cell is divided into a diploid nucleus cell and a double haploid nuclei cell. When the cytokinesis of second meiosis is completed, finally, it produces four haploid daughter cells. Overall, ''Peridinium'' dominants in mobile haploid generation. Between spring and summer, the haploid venerative cells produce gametes by mitosis and fuse gametes into a diploid planozygote. The diploid planozygotes then transform into immobile hypnozygotes and deposit to get dormancy in winter. After a year, the hypnozygotes germinate in spring and release haploid vegetative cells.Ecology
''Peridinium gatunense'' blooms in the Lake Kinneret in Israel which changing the color of the lake is discovered in 1960. The blooming event occurs because the organic mineral is flushed into the sea every year in spring. Organic mineral nourishes the diatom and increases their population. Thus, the planozygotes of ''Peridinium '' break dormancy and release thousands of vegetative cells into the sea by feeding on diatom. From 1960 to 1996, the annual pattern was regularly peaked at spring in each year. But starting from 1996, the blooming was broken. The break of blooming is related to high temperature, other phytoplanktonic competitor (''Chytrid'' or ''Microcystis''), and human activities in the aquatic system by managing the water flow of the river.Species
Species include:M.D. Guiry in Guiry, M.D. & Guiry, G.M. 2018. AlgaeBase. World-wide electronic publication, National University of Ireland, Galway. http://www.algaebase.org/search/genus/detail/?genus_id=Se66edad67e72e87b ; searched on 19 August 2018. *''Peridinium abscissum'' Otto Zacharias, O.Zacharias *''Peridinium achromaticum'' K.M. Levander, Levander *''Peridinium acutangulum'' Ernst Lemmermann, Lemmermann Ernst Lemmermann, Lemmermann *''Peridinium acutum'' George Karsten, G.Karsten *''Peridinium adriaticum'' Hjalmar Broch, H.Broch *''Peridinium aequalis'' W.S.Kent *''Peridinium allorgei'' Lefèvre *''Peridinium ampulliforme'' E.J.F.Wood *''Peridinium andrzejowskii'' Woloszynska *''Peridinium annulatum'' Charles Atwood Kofoid, C.A.Kofoid & Josephine Rigden Michener, J.R.Michener *''Peridinium anserinum'' Willy Baumeister, Baumeister *''Peridinium aspinum'' Alphonse F. Meunier, A.F.Meunier *''Peridinium assymmetricum'' L.A.Mangin Carl Hansen Ostenfeld, C.E.H.Ostenfeld *''Peridinium asymmetrica'' Tohru Hidemiti Abé, T.H.Abé *''Peridinium asymmetricum'' George Karsten, G.Karsten *''Peridinium baliense'' E.R.Lindemann *''Peridinium basilium'' W.S.Drugg *''Peridinium belgicum'' A.Wulff *''Peridinium bicorne'' L.K.Schmarda *''Peridinium bidens'' Ernst Lemmermann, Lemmermann *''Peridinium bimucronatum'' Josef Schiller, J.Schiller *''Peridinium bipes'' Samuel Friedrich Stein, Stein *''Peridinium brasiliense'' G.Borics & I.Grigorszky *''Peridinium callosum'' E.H.Jörgensen *''Peridinium carinatum'' Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg, Ehrenberg *''Peridinium caspicum'' Carl Hansen Ostenfeld, C.E.H.Ostenfeld Ernst Lemmermann, Lemmermann *''Peridinium castaneiforme'' L.A.Mangin *''Peridinium cavispinum'' L.A.Mangin *''Peridinium centenniale'' George Israel Playfair, Playfair M.Lefèvre *''Peridinium chattoni'' B.Biecheler *''Peridinium chattonii'' Biecheler *''Peridinium chilophaenum'' Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg, Ehrenberg *''Peridinium chinense'' Josef Schiller, J.Schiller *''Peridinium cinctum'' Otto Friedrich Müller, O.F.Müller Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg, Ehrenberg - type *''Peridinium comatum'' P.Morgenroth *''Peridinium complanatum'' Alphonse F. Meunier, A.F.Meunier *''Peridinium complanatum'' George Karsten, G.Karsten *''Peridinium corniculum'' Charles Atwood Kofoid, Kofoid & Josephine Rigden Michener, Michener *''Peridinium crassipyrum'' Balech *''Peridinium cucumis'' G.H.Wailes *''Peridinium cuneatum'' A.C.J.Goor *''Peridinium cypripedium'' H.J.Clark *''Peridinium cystiferum'' Jules Pavillard, Pavillard *''Peridinium dakariensis'' P.A.Dangeard *''Peridinium dalei'' Indel.& Loeblich Balech *''Peridinium deficiens'' Alphonse F. Meunier, A.F.Meunier *''Peridinium delitiense'' Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg, Ehrenberg *''Peridinium dentatum'' V.Hensen *''Peridinium diamantum'' D.M.Churchill & W.A.S.Sarjeant *''Peridinium digitale'' C.-H.-G.Pouchet Ernst Lemmermann, Lemmermann *''Peridinium diplopsalioides'' A.Henckel *''Peridinium disciforme'' Astrid Cleve, A.Cleve *''Peridinium ellipsoideum'' L.A.Mangin *''Peridinium ellipsoideum'' P.A.Dangeard *''Peridinium eocenicum'' I.C.Cookson & A.Eisenack *''Peridinium excavatum'' George Willard Martin, G.W.Martin *''Peridinium exiguipes'' L.A.Mangin *''Peridinium exiguum'' P.T.Cleve *''Peridinium formosum'' Jules Pavillard, Pavillard *''Peridinium galeatum'' V.Hensen *''Peridinium garderae'' Balech *''Peridinium gargantua'' Biecheler *''Peridinium gatunense'' Gunnar Nygaard (phycologist), Nygaard *''Peridinium geminum'' George Israel Playfair, Playfair *''Peridinium gemma'' Astrid Cleve, A.Cleve *''Peridinium globifera'' Tohru Hidemiti Abé, T.H.Abé *''Peridinium godlewskii'' Woloszynska *''Peridinium goslaviense'' Wolszynska *''Peridinium gracile'' Haaken Hasberg Gran, Gran & Braarud *''Peridinium gracile'' Alphonse F. Meunier, Meunier *''Peridinium grani'' Carl Hansen Ostenfeld, C.E.H.Ostenfeld *''Peridinium granisparsum'' Alphonse F. Meunier, A.F.Meunier *''Peridinium granulosum'' George Israel Playfair, Playfair *''Peridinium gravidum'' Alphonse F. Meunier, A.F.Meunier *''Peridinium grenlandicum'' J.Woloszynska *''Peridinium gutwinskii'' Woloszynska *''Peridinium gymnodinium'' Pénard Géza Entz, Entz *''Peridinium helix'' Balech *''Peridinium hemisphaericum'' Tohru Hidemiti Abé, T.H.Abé *''Peridinium herbaceum'' F.Schütt *''Peridinium heteracanthum'' P.A.Dangeard *''Peridinium hirobis'' Tohru Hidemiti Abé, T.H.Abé *''Peridinium horridissimum'' V.Hensen *''Peridinium horridum'' V.Hensen *''Peridinium huberi'' Josef Schiller, J.Schiller *''Peridinium hyalinum'' Alphonse F. Meunier, A.F.Meunier *''Peridinium hyalinum'' Charles Atwood Kofoid, C.A.Kofoid & Josephine Rigden Michener, J.R.Michener *''Peridinium illustrans'' O.C.A.Wetzel *''Peridinium imperfectum'' Georg Klebs, G.A.Klebs *''Peridinium inaequale'' Emmanuel Fauré-Fremiet, Fauré-Fremiet *''Peridinium inaequale'' N.Peters *''Peridinium inclinatum'' Balech *''Peridinium inconspicuum-contactum'' E.Lindemann F.Ruttner *''Peridinium inflatiforme'' A.Böhm *''Peridinium intermedium'' A.Candeias *''Peridinium intermedium'' George Israel Playfair, Playfair George Israel Playfair, Playfair *''Peridinium jensenii'' Gunnar Nygaard (phycologist), Nygaard Gunnar Nygaard (phycologist), Nygaard *''Peridinium jenzschii'' Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg, Ehrenberg *''Peridinium kansanum'' P.Tasch *''Peridinium karianum'' Alphonse F. Meunier, A.F.Meunier Josef Schiller, J.Schiller *''Peridinium karianum'' A.Henckel *''Peridinium karstenii'' Charles Atwood Kofoid, Kofoid & Josephine Rigden Michener, Michener *''Peridinium keyense'' Gunnar Nygaard (phycologist), Nygaard *''Peridinium knipowitzschii'' Ussatschew *''Peridinium kofoidii'' Emmanuel Fauré-Fremiet, Fauré-Fremiet *''Peridinium koma'' Tohru Hidemiti Abé, T.H.Abé *''Peridinium lambdoideum'' E.Nagy *''Peridinium laticeps'' Julius Grøntved, J.Gröntved & G.Seidenfaden *''Peridinium latipyrum'' Balech *''Peridinium lenticulare'' E.H.Jörgensen *''Peridinium lenticulatum'' Emmanuel Fauré-Fremiet, Fauré-Fremiet *''Peridinium levanderi'' Tohru Hidemiti Abé, T.H.Abé *''Peridinium limbatum'' Alfred Cheatham Stokes, Stokes Ernst Lemmermann, Lemmermann *''Peridinium lingii'' Kuno Thomasson, Thomasson *''Peridinium lithanthracis'' Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg, Ehrenberg Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg, Ehrenberg *''Peridinium loeblichii'' E.R.Cox & H.J.Arnott Barrie Dale, Dale *''Peridinium longicollum'' Jules Pavillard, Pavillard *''Peridinium longirostrum'' Astrid Cleve, A.Cleve *''Peridinium longispinum'' L.A.Mangin *''Peridinium lucina'' Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg, Ehrenberg *''Peridinium macrapicatum'' Balech *''Peridinium macrospinum'' L.A.Mangin *''Peridinium majus'' P.A.Dangeard P.A.Dangeard *''Peridinium manginii'' Carl Hansen Ostenfeld, Ostenfeld *''Peridinium marinum'' E.Lindemann *''Peridinium matzenaueri'' Karen Ringdal Gaarder, K.R.Gaarder *''Peridinium melaphyri'' Jenzsch Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg, Ehrenberg *''Peridinium meunieri'' N.Peters *''Peridinium micrapium'' Alphonse F. Meunier, A.F.Meunier *''Peridinium minsculum'' Jules Pavillard, Pavillard *''Peridinium minus'' L.A.Mangin *''Peridinium minus'' O.W.Paulsen O.W.Paulsen *''Peridinium minusculum'' Jules Pavillard, Pavillard *''Peridinium minutissimum'' L.A.Mangin *''Peridinium mixtum'' Woloszynska *''Peridinium monacanthum'' Hjalmar Broch, Broch Balech *''Peridinium monoceros'' V.Hensen *''Peridinium morzinense'' Lefèvre *''Peridinium multipunctatum'' Emmanuel Fauré-Fremiet, Fauré-Fremiet *''Peridinium mutsui'' Josef Schiller, J.Schiller *''Peridinium nanum'' Balech *''Peridinium nasutum'' L.A.Mangin *''Peridinium neglectum'' V.Hensen) *''Peridinium nivale'' Alphonse F. Meunier, A.F.Meunier Josef Schiller, J.Schiller *''Peridinium nodulosum'' Charles Atwood Kofoid, C.A.Kofoid & Josephine Rigden Michener, J.R.Michener *''Peridinium norpacense'' Balech *''Peridinium novum'' Robert Hippolyte Chodat, Chodat *''Peridinium novum'' V.Hensen *''Peridinium nux'' Josef Schiller, J.Schiller *''Peridinium oamaruense'' Deflandre Josef Schiller, Schiller *''Peridinium obesum'' Lothar Matzenauer, Matzenauer *''Peridinium obliquiforme'' Josef Schiller, J.Schiller *''Peridinium obliquum'' L.A.Mangin *''Peridinium obliquum'' P.A.Dangeard *''Peridinium obtusipes'' L.A.Mangin *''Peridinium oculatum'' Félix Dujardin, Dujardin *''Peridinium oculatum'' Samuel Friedrich Stein, F.Stein J.Woloszynska *''Peridinium okamurae'' Tohru Hidemiti Abé, T.H.Abé *''Peridinium ovale'' V.Hensen *''Peridinium pacificum'' Charles Atwood Kofoid, Kofoid & Josephine Rigden Michener, Michener *''Peridinium paleocenicum'' I.C.Cookson & A.Eisenack *''Peridinium parainerme'' Dashu Nie, D.S.Nie & Chia Chi Wang, C.C.Wang *''Peridinium parallelum'' John C. Brock, Brock *''Peridinium parapentagonum'' Chia Chi Wang, Wang *''Peridinium parapyriforme'' J.Hermosilla *''Peridinium peisonis'' Josef Schiller, J.Schiller *''Peridinium perbreve'' Balech & S.O.Soares *''Peridinium perhorridum'' V.Hensen *''Peridinium perminutum'' Astrid Cleve, A.Cleve *''Peridinium perrieri'' Emmanuel Fauré-Fremiet, Fauré-Fremiet *''Peridinium persicum'' Josef Schiller, J.Schiller *''Peridinium petersi'' Balech *''Peridinium pietschmanni'' A.Böhm *''Peridinium pilula'' Carl Hansen Ostenfeld, Ostenfeld Ernst Lemmermann, Lemmermann *''Peridinium planulum'' J.A.M.Perty *''Peridinium playfairi'' E.Lindemann *''Peridinium playfairii'' E.R.Lindemann *''Peridinium pleum'' P.Tasch *''Peridinium polymorphum'' E.Lindemann *''Peridinium ponticum'' D.Wall & Barrie Dale, B.Dale *''Peridinium porosum'' V.Hensen *''Peridinium pouchetii'' Charles Atwood Kofoid, Kofoid & Josephine Rigden Michener, Michener *''Peridinium priscum'' Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg, Ehrenberg *''Peridinium privum'' O.E.Imhof *''Peridinium pseudo-intermedium'' Couté & A.Iltis *''Peridinium pseudo-laeve'' M.Lefèvre *''Peridinium pseudoantarcticum'' Balech *''Peridinium pseudograni'' N.Peters *''Peridinium pseudonoctiluca'' C.-H.-G.Pouchet C.-H.-G.Pouchet *''Peridinium pseudopallidum'' N.Peters *''Peridinium pulchellum'' George Karsten, G.Karsten *''Peridinium pulchrum'' V.Hensen *''Peridinium quadricorne'' A.Henckel *''Peridinium quadridentatum'' Samuel Friedrich Stein, F.Stein Gert Hansen *''Peridinium raciborskii'' Woloszynska *''Peridinium rampii'' Balech *''Peridinium resistente'' P.Morgenroth *''Peridinium rhombus'' Alphonse F. Meunier, A.F.Meunier *''Peridinium robustum'' Alphonse F. Meunier, A.F.Meunier *''Peridinium rubrum'' L.S.Cienkowski *''Peridinium saecularis'' George Murray (naturalist), G.Murray & F.G.Whitting Carl Hansen Ostenfeld, C.E.H.Ostenfeld *''Peridinium scallense'' E.Lindemann *''Peridinium schilleri'' A.Böhm *''Peridinium schuettii'' Ernst Lemmermann, Lemmermann George Karsten, G.Karsten *''Peridinium seebergi'' A.Henckel *''Peridinium sibiricum'' A.Henckel *''Peridinium simplex'' Haaken Hasberg Gran, Gran & Braarud *''Peridinium smirnovii'' Skvortzov *''Peridinium sociale'' L.-F.Henneguy B.Biecheler *''Peridinium solidum'' Astrid Cleve, A.Cleve *''Peridinium speciosum'' E.H.Jörgensen *''Peridinium sphaericum'' Alphonse F. Meunier, A.F.Meunier *''Peridinium sphaericum'' George Murray (naturalist), G.Murray & F.G.Whitting *''Peridinium sphaericum'' K.Okamura *''Peridinium spheroidea'' Tohru Hidemiti Abé, T.H.Abé *''Peridinium spheroides'' P.A.Dangeard *''Peridinium spinosum'' Josef Schiller, J.Schiller *''Peridinium spirale'' Karen Ringdal Gaarder, Gaarder Balech *''Peridinium striatum'' A.Böhm *''Peridinium striolatum'' George Israel Playfair, Playfair *''Peridinium subtatranum'' Woloszynska *''Peridinium sydneyense'' Kuno Thomasson, Thomasson *''Peridinium symmetricum'' Youssef Halim, Halim *''Peridinium tabulatum'' Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg, Ehrenberg *''Peridinium tassellatum'' George Karsten, G.Karsten *''Peridinium tenuicorne'' L.A.Mangin *''Peridinium tenuissimum'' Charles Atwood Kofoid, C.A.Kofoid *''Peridinium tetraceros'' v. Strampff *''Peridinium thuringiae'' Jenzsch Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg, Ehrenberg *''Peridinium toali'' A.Henckel *''Peridinium tomnickii'' J.Woloszynska *''Peridinium treubi'' J.Woloszynska *''Peridinium tricuspis'' O.C.A.Wetzel *''Peridinium tridens'' Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg, Ehrenberg *''Peridinium triqueta'' Samuel Friedrich Stein, F.Stein Marie Lebour, Lebour *''Peridinium tristylum'' Samuel Friedrich Stein, F.Stein *''Peridinium truncatum'' Otto Zacharias, O.Zacharias *''Peridinium truncus'' Tohru Hidemiti Abé, T.H.Abé *''Peridinium tsingtaoense'' Dashu Nie, D.S.Nie & Chia Chi Wang, C.C.Wang *''Peridinium uberrimum'' G.J.Allman *''Peridinium uliginosum'' Josef Schiller, J.Schiller J.Woloszynska *''Peridinium umbo'' L.G.Sjöstedt *''Peridinium umbonatum'' George Karsten, Karsten *''Peridinium venter'' V.Hensen *''Peridinium ventricum'' Tohru Hidemiti Abé, T.H.Abé *''Peridinium ventriosum'' O.C.A.Wetzel *''Peridinium vexans'' George Murray (naturalist), G.Murray & F.G.Whitting *''Peridinium volkii'' Ernst Lemmermann, Lemmermann *''Peridinium volzi'' Ernst Lemmermann, Lemmermann *''Peridinium volzii'' Ernst Lemmermann, Lemmermann *''Peridinium volzii'' Woloszynska *''Peridinium vorticella'' Samuel Friedrich Stein, F.Stein *''Peridinium wiezejski'' Woloszynska *''Peridinium willei'' Huitfeldt-Kaas *''Peridinium witoslawii'' E.Lindemann *''Peridinium woloszynskae'' W.Conrad *''Peridinium yonedae'' Tohru Hidemiti Abé, AbéReferences