Pericytes (formerly called Rouget cells)
are multi-functional
mural cells of the
microcirculation
The microcirculation is the circulation of the blood in the smallest blood vessels, the microvessels of the microvasculature present within organ tissues. The microvessels include terminal arterioles, metarterioles, capillaries, and venules. ...
that wrap around the
endothelial cells
The endothelium (: endothelia) is a single layer of squamous endothelial cells that line the interior surface of blood vessels and lymphatic vessels. The endothelium forms an interface between circulating blood or lymph in the lumen and the res ...
that line the
capillaries
A capillary is a small blood vessel, from 5 to 10 micrometres in diameter, and is part of the microcirculation system. Capillaries are microvessels and the smallest blood vessels in the body. They are composed of only the tunica intima (the in ...
throughout the body. Pericytes are embedded in the
basement membrane
The basement membrane, also known as base membrane, is a thin, pliable sheet-like type of extracellular matrix that provides cell and tissue support and acts as a platform for complex signalling. The basement membrane sits between epithelial tis ...
of blood capillaries, where they communicate with endothelial cells by means of both direct physical contact and
paracrine signaling
In cellular biology, paracrine signaling is a form of cell signaling, a type of cellular communication in which a cell produces a signal to induce changes in nearby cells, altering the behaviour of those cells. Signaling molecules known as parac ...
. The morphology, distribution, density and molecular fingerprints of pericytes vary between organs and vascular beds. Pericytes help in the maintainenance of
homeostatic and
hemostatic functions in the
brain
The brain is an organ (biology), organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals. It consists of nervous tissue and is typically located in the head (cephalization), usually near organs for ...
, where one of the organs is characterized with a higher pericyte coverage, and also sustain the
blood–brain barrier
The blood–brain barrier (BBB) is a highly selective semipermeable membrane, semipermeable border of endothelium, endothelial cells that regulates the transfer of solutes and chemicals between the circulatory system and the central nervous system ...
.
These cells are also a key component of the
neurovascular unit, which includes endothelial cells,
astrocyte
Astrocytes (from Ancient Greek , , "star" and , , "cavity", "cell"), also known collectively as astroglia, are characteristic star-shaped glial cells in the brain and spinal cord. They perform many functions, including biochemical control of en ...
s, and
neuron
A neuron (American English), neurone (British English), or nerve cell, is an membrane potential#Cell excitability, excitable cell (biology), cell that fires electric signals called action potentials across a neural network (biology), neural net ...
s.
Pericytes have been postulated to regulate capillary blood flow
and the clearance and
phagocytosis
Phagocytosis () is the process by which a cell (biology), cell uses its plasma membrane to engulf a large particle (≥ 0.5 μm), giving rise to an internal compartment called the phagosome. It is one type of endocytosis. A cell that performs ph ...
of cellular debris ''in vitro.'' Pericytes stabilize and monitor the maturation of endothelial cells by means of direct communication between the cell membrane as well as through paracrine signaling.
A deficiency of pericytes in the
central nervous system
The central nervous system (CNS) is the part of the nervous system consisting primarily of the brain, spinal cord and retina. The CNS is so named because the brain integrates the received information and coordinates and influences the activity o ...
can cause increased permeability of the blood–brain barrier.
Structure

In the
central nervous system
The central nervous system (CNS) is the part of the nervous system consisting primarily of the brain, spinal cord and retina. The CNS is so named because the brain integrates the received information and coordinates and influences the activity o ...
(CNS), pericytes wrap around the endothelial cells that line the inside of the capillary. These two types of cells can be easily distinguished from one another based on the presence of the prominent round
nucleus of the pericyte compared to the flat elongated nucleus of the endothelial cells.
Pericytes also project finger-like extensions that wrap around the capillary wall, allowing the cells to regulate capillary blood flow.
Both pericytes and endothelial cells share a basement membrane where a variety of intercellular connections are made. Many types of
integrin
Integrins are transmembrane receptors that help cell–cell and cell–extracellular matrix (ECM) adhesion. Upon ligand binding, integrins activate signal transduction pathways that mediate cellular signals such as regulation of the cell cycle, o ...
molecules facilitate communication between pericytes and endothelial cells separated by the basement membrane.
Pericytes can also form direct connections with neighboring cells by forming peg and socket arrangements in which parts of the cells interlock, similar to the gears of a clock. At these interlocking sites,
gap junction
Gap junctions are membrane channels between adjacent cells that allow the direct exchange of cytoplasmic substances, such small molecules, substrates, and metabolites.
Gap junctions were first described as ''close appositions'' alongside tight ...
s can be formed, which allow the pericytes and neighboring cells to exchange ions and other small molecules.
Important molecules in these intercellular connections include
N-cadherin,
fibronectin
Fibronectin is a high- molecular weight (~500-~600 kDa) glycoprotein of the extracellular matrix that binds to membrane-spanning receptor proteins called integrins. Fibronectin also binds to other extracellular matrix proteins such as col ...
,
connexin
Connexins (Cx)TC# 1.A.24, or gap junction proteins, are structurally related transmembrane proteins that assemble to form vertebrate gap junctions. An entirely different family of proteins, the innexins, forms gap junctions in invertebrates. Eac ...
and various integrins.
In some regions of the basement membrane,
adhesion plaques composed of fibronectin can be found. These plaques facilitate the connection of the basement membrane to the
cytoskeletal
The cytoskeleton is a complex, dynamic network of interlinking protein filaments present in the cytoplasm of all Cell (biology), cells, including those of bacteria and archaea. In eukaryotes, it extends from the cell nucleus to the cell membrane ...
structure composed of
actin
Actin is a family of globular multi-functional proteins that form microfilaments in the cytoskeleton, and the thin filaments in muscle fibrils. It is found in essentially all eukaryotic cells, where it may be present at a concentration of ...
, and the plasma membrane of the pericytes and endothelial cells.
Function
Skeletal muscle regeneration and fat formation
Pericytes in the
skeletal striated muscle
Skeletal muscle (commonly referred to as muscle) is one of the three types of vertebrate muscle tissue, the others being cardiac muscle and smooth muscle. They are part of the somatic nervous system, voluntary muscular system and typically are a ...
are of two distinct populations, each with its own role. The first pericyte subtype (Type-1) can differentiate into
fat
In nutrition science, nutrition, biology, and chemistry, fat usually means any ester of fatty acids, or a mixture of such chemical compound, compounds, most commonly those that occur in living beings or in food.
The term often refers specif ...
cells while the other (Type-2) into muscle cells. Type-1 characterized by negative expression for
nestin (PDGFRβ+CD146+Nes-) and type-2 characterized by positive expression for nestin (PDGFRβ+CD146+Nes+). While both types are able to proliferate in response to
glycerol
Glycerol () is a simple triol compound. It is a colorless, odorless, sweet-tasting, viscous liquid. The glycerol backbone is found in lipids known as glycerides. It is also widely used as a sweetener in the food industry and as a humectant in pha ...
or
BaCl2-induced injury, type-1 pericytes give rise to adipogenic cells only in response to glycerol injection and type-2 become myogenic in response to both types of
injury
Injury is physiological damage to the living tissue of any organism, whether in humans, in other animals, or in plants.
Injuries can be caused in many ways, including mechanically with penetration by sharp objects such as teeth or with ...
. The extent to which type-1 pericytes participate in fat accumulation is not known.
Angiogenesis and the survival of endothelial cells
Pericytes are also associated with endothelial cell differentiation and multiplication,
angiogenesis
Angiogenesis is the physiological process through which new blood vessels form from pre-existing vessels, formed in the earlier stage of vasculogenesis. Angiogenesis continues the growth of the vasculature mainly by processes of sprouting and ...
, survival of
apoptotic signals and travel. Certain pericytes, known as microvascular pericytes, develop around the walls of capillaries and help to serve this function. Microvascular pericytes may not be contractile cells, as they lack alpha-
actin
Actin is a family of globular multi-functional proteins that form microfilaments in the cytoskeleton, and the thin filaments in muscle fibrils. It is found in essentially all eukaryotic cells, where it may be present at a concentration of ...
isoforms, structures that are common amongst other contractile cells. These cells communicate with endothelial cells via
gap junction
Gap junctions are membrane channels between adjacent cells that allow the direct exchange of cytoplasmic substances, such small molecules, substrates, and metabolites.
Gap junctions were first described as ''close appositions'' alongside tight ...
s, and in turn cause endothelial cells to proliferate or be selectively inhibited. If this process did not occur,
hyperplasia
Hyperplasia (from ancient Greek ὑπέρ ''huper'' 'over' + πλάσις ''plasis'' 'formation'), or hypergenesis, is an enlargement of an organ or tissue caused by an increase in the amount of Tissue (biology), organic tissue that results from ...
and abnormal vascular
morphogenesis
Morphogenesis (from the Greek ''morphê'' shape and ''genesis'' creation, literally "the generation of form") is the biological process that causes a cell, tissue or organism to develop its shape. It is one of three fundamental aspects of deve ...
could result. These types of pericyte can also
phagocytose exogenous proteins. This suggests that the cell type might have been derived from
microglia
Microglia are a type of glia, glial cell located throughout the brain and spinal cord of the central nervous system (CNS). Microglia account for about around 5–10% of cells found within the brain. As the resident macrophage cells, they act as t ...
.
A lineage relationship to other cell types has been proposed, including
smooth muscle cells
Smooth muscle is one of the three major types of vertebrate muscle tissue, the others being skeletal muscle, skeletal and cardiac muscle. It can also be found in invertebrates and is controlled by the autonomic nervous system. It is non-striated ...
,
neural cells,
NG2 glia,
muscle fibers
Skeletal muscle (commonly referred to as muscle) is one of the three types of vertebrate muscle tissue, the others being cardiac muscle and smooth muscle. They are part of the somatic nervous system, voluntary muscular system and typically are a ...
,
adipocyte
Adipocytes, also known as lipocytes and fat cells, are the cell (biology), cells that primarily compose adipose tissue, specialized in storing energy as fat. Adipocytes are derived from mesenchymal stem cells which give rise to adipocytes through ...
s, as well as
fibroblast
A fibroblast is a type of cell (biology), biological cell typically with a spindle shape that synthesizes the extracellular matrix and collagen, produces the structural framework (Stroma (tissue), stroma) for animal Tissue (biology), tissues, and ...
s
and other
mesenchymal stem cell
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), also known as mesenchymal stromal cells or medicinal signaling cells, are multipotent stromal cells that can Cellular differentiation, differentiate into a variety of cell types, including osteoblasts (bone cells), ...
s. However, whether these cells differentiate into each other is an outstanding question in the field. Pericytes' regenerative capacity is affected by aging.
Such versatility is useful, as they actively remodel blood vessels throughout the body and can thereby blend homogeneously with the local
tissue environment.
Aside from creating and remodeling blood vessels, pericytes have been found to protect endothelial cells from death via apoptosis or
cytotoxic elements. It has been shown ''
in vivo
Studies that are ''in vivo'' (Latin for "within the living"; often not italicized in English) are those in which the effects of various biological entities are tested on whole, living organisms or cells, usually animals, including humans, an ...
'' that pericytes release a
hormone
A hormone (from the Ancient Greek, Greek participle , "setting in motion") is a class of cell signaling, signaling molecules in multicellular organisms that are sent to distant organs or tissues by complex biological processes to regulate physio ...
known as pericytic
aminopeptidase
Aminopeptidases are enzymes that catalyze the cleavage of amino acids from the N-terminus (beginning), of proteins or peptides. They are found in many organisms; in the cell, they are found in many organelles, in the cytosol (internal cellular f ...
N/pAPN that may help to promote angiogenesis. When this hormone was mixed with
cerebral endothelial cells as well as astrocytes, the pericytes grouped into structures that resembled capillaries. Furthermore, when the experimental group contained all of the following with the exception of pericytes, the endothelial cells would undergo apoptosis. It was thus concluded that pericytes must be present to ensure the proper function of endothelial cells, and astrocytes must be present to ensure that both remain in contact. If not, then proper angiogenesis cannot occur. It has also been found that pericytes contribute to the survival of endothelial cells, as they secrete the protein
Bcl-w during cellular crosstalk. Bcl-w is an instrumental protein in the pathway that enforces
VEGF-A
Vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''VEGFA'' gene.
Function
This gene is a member of the platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)/vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) family and encod ...
expression and discourages apoptosis. Although there is some speculation as to why
VEGF is directly responsible for preventing apoptosis, it is believed to be responsible for modulating apoptotic
signal transduction pathways
Signal transduction is the process by which a chemical or physical signal is transmitted through a cell as a series of molecular events. Proteins responsible for detecting stimuli are generally termed receptors, although in some cases the term ...
and inhibiting activation of apoptosis-inducing
enzyme
An enzyme () is a protein that acts as a biological catalyst by accelerating chemical reactions. The molecules upon which enzymes may act are called substrate (chemistry), substrates, and the enzyme converts the substrates into different mol ...
s. Two biochemical mechanisms utilized by VEGF to accomplish this would be
phosphorylation
In biochemistry, phosphorylation is described as the "transfer of a phosphate group" from a donor to an acceptor. A common phosphorylating agent (phosphate donor) is ATP and a common family of acceptor are alcohols:
:
This equation can be writ ...
of
extracellular regulatory kinase 1 (ERK-1, also known as MAPK3), which sustains cell survival over time, and inhibition of stress-activated protein kinase/c-jun-NH2 kinase, which also promotes apoptosis.
Blood–brain barrier
Pericytes play a crucial role in the formation and functionality of the
blood–brain barrier
The blood–brain barrier (BBB) is a highly selective semipermeable membrane, semipermeable border of endothelium, endothelial cells that regulates the transfer of solutes and chemicals between the circulatory system and the central nervous system ...
. This barrier is composed of endothelial cells and ensures the protection and functionality of the brain and central nervous system. It has been found that pericytes are crucial to the postnatal formation of this barrier. Pericytes are responsible for
tight junction
Tight junctions, also known as occluding junctions or ''zonulae occludentes'' (singular, ''zonula occludens''), are multiprotein Cell junction, junctional complexes between epithelial cells, sealing and preventing leakage of solutes and water. Th ...
formation and
vesicle trafficking amongst endothelial cells. Furthermore, they allow the formation of the blood–brain barrier by inhibiting the effects of CNS
immune cells
White blood cells (scientific name leukocytes), also called immune cells or immunocytes, are cells of the immune system that are involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign entities. White blood cells are genera ...
(which can damage the formation of the barrier) and by reducing the expression of molecules that increase vascular permeability.
Aside from blood–brain barrier formation, pericytes also play an active role in its functionality. Animal models of developmental loss of pericytes show increased endothelial transcytosis, as well as skewed arterio-venous zonation, increased expression of leukocyte adhesion molecules and microaneurysms.
[
*] Loss or dysfunction of pericytes is also theorized to contribute to neurodegenerative diseases such as
Alzheimer's,
Parkinson's and
ALS through breakdown of the blood-brain barrier.
Blood flow
Increasing evidence suggests that pericytes can regulate blood flow at the capillary level. For the retina, movies have been published
showing that pericytes constrict capillaries when their membrane potential is altered to cause calcium influx, and in the brain it has been reported that neuronal activity increases local blood flow by inducing pericytes to dilate capillaries before upstream arteriole dilation occurs.
This area is controversial, with a 2015 study claiming that pericytes do not express contractile proteins and are not capable of contraction in vivo,
although the latter paper has been criticised for using a highly unconventional definition of pericyte which explicitly excludes contractile pericytes.
It appears that different signaling pathways regulate the constriction of capillaries by pericytes and of arterioles by smooth muscle cells.
Recent studies on rats have found such a signaling pathway in which after spinal cord injury and induced hypoxia below the injury, there is excess activity of monoamine receptors on pericytes which locally constricts capillaries and reduces blood flow to ischemic levels.
Pericytes are important in maintaining circulation. In a study involving adult pericyte-deficient mice, cerebral blood flow was diminished with concurrent vascular regression due to loss of both endothelia and pericytes. Significantly greater hypoxia was reported in the hippocampus of pericyte-deficient mice as well as inflammation, and
learning
Learning is the process of acquiring new understanding, knowledge, behaviors, skills, value (personal and cultural), values, Attitude (psychology), attitudes, and preferences. The ability to learn is possessed by humans, non-human animals, and ...
and
memory
Memory is the faculty of the mind by which data or information is encoded, stored, and retrieved when needed. It is the retention of information over time for the purpose of influencing future action. If past events could not be remembe ...
impairment.
Clinical significance
Because of their crucial role in maintaining and regulating endothelial cell structure and blood flow, abnormalities in pericyte function are seen in many pathologies. They may either be present in excess, leading to diseases such as hypertension and tumor formation, or in deficiency, leading to neurodegenerative diseases.
Hemangioma
The clinical phases of
hemangioma
A hemangioma or haemangioma is a usually benign vascular tumor derived from blood vessel cell types. The most common form, seen in infants, is an infantile hemangioma, known colloquially as a "strawberry mark", most commonly presenting on the sk ...
have physiological differences, correlated with immunophenotypic profiles by Takahashi et al. During the early proliferative phase (0–12 months) the tumors express proliferating cell nuclear antigen (pericytesna), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and type IV collagenase, the former two localized to both endothelium and pericytes, and the last to endothelium. The vascular markers CD31, von Willebrand factor (vWF), and smooth muscle actin (pericyte marker) are present during the proliferating and involuting phases, but are lost after the lesion is fully involuted.
Hemangiopericytoma
Hemangiopericytoma is a rare vascular neoplasm, or abnormal growth, that may either be benign or malignant. In its malignant form, metastasis to the lungs, liver, brain, and extremities may occur. It most commonly manifests itself in the femur and proximal tibia as a bone sarcoma, and is usually found in older individuals, though cases have been found in children. Hemangiopericytoma is caused by the excessive layering of sheets of pericytes around improperly formed blood vessels. Diagnosis of this tumor is difficult because of the inability to distinguish pericytes from other types of cells using light microscopy. Treatment may involve surgical removal and radiation therapy, depending on the level of bone penetration and stage in the tumor's development.
Diabetic retinopathy
The retina of diabetic individuals often exhibits loss of pericytes, and this loss is a characteristic factor of the early stages of
diabetic retinopathy
Diabetic retinopathy (also known as diabetic eye disease) is a medical condition in which damage occurs to the retina due to diabetes. It is a leading cause of blindness in developed countries and one of the lead causes of sight loss in the wor ...
. Studies have found that pericytes are essential in diabetic individuals to protect the endothelial cells of retinal capillaries. With the loss of pericytes, microaneurysms form in the capillaries. In response, the retina either increases its vascular permeability, leading to swelling of the eye through a
macular edema, or forms new vessels that permeate into the
vitreous membrane
The vitreous membrane (or hyaloid membrane or vitreous cortex) is a layer of collagen separating the vitreous humour from the rest of the eye. At least two parts have been identified anatomically. The posterior hyaloid membrane separates the rear o ...
of the eye. The end result is reduction or loss of vision.
While it is unclear why pericytes are lost in diabetic patients, one hypothesis is that toxic
sorbitol
Sorbitol (), less commonly known as glucitol (), is a sugar alcohol with a sweet taste which the human body metabolizes slowly. It can be obtained by reduction of glucose, which changes the converted aldehyde group (−CHO) to a primary alco ...
and
advanced glycation end-product
Advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) are proteins or lipids that become Glycation, glycated as a result of exposure to sugars. They are a bio-marker implicated in aging and the development, or worsening, of many degenerative diseases, such as dia ...
s (AGE) accumulate in the pericytes. Because of the build-up of glucose, the
polyol pathway increases its flux, and intracellular sorbitol and fructose accumulate. This leads to osmotic imbalance, which results in cellular damage. The presence of high glucose levels also leads to the buildup of AGE's, which also damage cells.
Neurodegenerative diseases
Studies have found that pericyte loss in the adult and aging brain leads to the disruption of proper cerebral perfusion and maintenance of the blood–brain barrier, which causes neurodegeneration and neuroinflammation. The apoptosis of pericytes in the aging brain may be the result of a failure in communication between growth factors and receptors on pericytes. Platelet-derived growth factor B (
PDGFB) is released from endothelial cells in brain vasculature and binds to the receptor PDGFRB on pericytes, initiating their proliferation and investment in the vasculature.
Immunohistochemical studies of human tissue from Alzheimer's disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis show pericyte loss and breakdown of the blood-brain barrier. Pericyte-deficient mouse models (which lack genes encoding steps in the PDGFB:PDGFRB signalling cascade) and have an Alzheimer's-causing mutation have exacerbated Alzheimer's-like pathology compared to mice with normal pericyte coverage and an Alzheimer's-causing mutation.
Stroke
In conditions of
stroke
Stroke is a medical condition in which poor cerebral circulation, blood flow to a part of the brain causes cell death. There are two main types of stroke: brain ischemia, ischemic, due to lack of blood flow, and intracranial hemorrhage, hemor ...
, pericytes constrict brain capillaries and then die, which may lead to a long-lasting decrease of blood flow and loss of blood–brain barrier function, increasing the death of nerve cells.
Research
Endothelial and pericyte interactions
Endothelial cells and pericytes are interdependent and failure of proper communication between the two cell types can lead to numerous human pathologies.
There are several pathways of communication between the endothelial cells and pericytes. The first is
transforming growth factor (TGF) signaling, which is mediated by endothelial cells. This is important for pericyte differentiation.
Angiopoietin 1 and
Tie-2 signaling is essential for maturation and stabilization of endothelial cells.
Platelet-derived growth factor
Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) is one among numerous growth factors that regulate cell growth and division. In particular, PDGF plays a significant role in blood vessel formation, the growth of blood vessels from already-existing bloo ...
(PDGF) pathway signaling from endothelial cells recruits pericytes, so that pericytes can migrate to developing blood vessels. If this pathway is blocked, it leads to pericyte deficiency.
Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) signaling also aids in pericyte recruitment by communication through
G protein-coupled receptor
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), also known as seven-(pass)-transmembrane domain receptors, 7TM receptors, heptahelical receptors, serpentine receptors, and G protein-linked receptors (GPLR), form a large group of evolutionarily related ...
s. S1P sends signals through
GTPase
GTPases are a large family of hydrolase enzymes that bind to the nucleotide guanosine triphosphate (GTP) and hydrolyze it to guanosine diphosphate (GDP). The GTP binding and hydrolysis takes place in the highly conserved P-loop "G domain", a ...
s that promote N-cadherin trafficking to endothelial membranes. This trafficking strengthens endothelial contacts with pericytes.
Communication between endothelial cells and pericytes is vital. Inhibiting the PDGF pathway leads to pericyte deficiency. This causes endothelial hyperplasia, abnormal junctions, and diabetic retinopathy.
A lack of pericytes also causes an upregulation of
vascular endothelial growth factor
Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF, ), originally known as vascular permeability factor (VPF), is a signal protein produced by many cells that stimulates the formation of blood vessels. To be specific, VEGF is a sub-family of growth factors ...
(VEGF), leading to vascular leakage and
hemorrhage
Bleeding, hemorrhage, haemorrhage or blood loss, is blood escaping from the circulatory system from damaged blood vessels. Bleeding can occur internally, or externally either through a natural opening such as the mouth, nose, ear, urethra, ...
.
Angiopoietin 2 can act as an antagonist to Tie-2,
destabilizing the endothelial cells, which results in less endothelial cell and pericyte interaction. This occasionally leads to the formation of tumors.
Similar to the inhibition of the PDGF pathway, angiopoietin 2 reduces levels of pericytes, leading to diabetic retinopathy.
Scarring
Usually, astrocytes are associated with the scarring process in the
central nervous system
The central nervous system (CNS) is the part of the nervous system consisting primarily of the brain, spinal cord and retina. The CNS is so named because the brain integrates the received information and coordinates and influences the activity o ...
, forming
glial scar
A glial scar formation (gliosis) is a reactive cellular process involving astrogliosis that occurs after injury to the central nervous system. As with scarring in other organs and tissues, the glial scar is the body's mechanism to protect and beg ...
s. It has been proposed that a subtype of pericytes participates in this scarring in a glial-independent manner. Through lineage tracking studies, these subtype of pericytes were followed after stroke, revealing that they contribute to the glial scar by differentiating into myofibroblasts and depositing extracellular matrix. However, this remains controversial, as more recent studies suggest that the cell type followed in these scar studies is likely to be not pericytes, but fibroblasts.
Contribution to adult neurogenesis
The emerging evidence (as of 2019) suggests that neural microvascular pericytes, under instruction from resident glial cells, are reprogrammed into interneurons and enrich local neuronal microcircuits.
This response is amplified by concomitant angiogenesis.
See also
*
Hemangiopericytoma
*
Mesoangioblast
*
Diabetic retinopathy
Diabetic retinopathy (also known as diabetic eye disease) is a medical condition in which damage occurs to the retina due to diabetes. It is a leading cause of blindness in developed countries and one of the lead causes of sight loss in the wor ...
caused by death of pericytes
*
List of human cell types derived from the germ layers
This is a list of Cell (biology), cells in humans derived from the three embryonic germ layers – ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm.
Cells derived from ectoderm
Surface ectoderm Skin
* Trichocyte (human), Trichocyte
* Keratinocyte
Anterior pi ...
References
External links
www.stemcellsfreak.comnbsp;— Pericytes can be used for muscle regeneration
Diagram at udel.edu
{{Authority control
Contractile cells
Animal cells
Human cells