Penelope Pulls It Off

Penelope ( ; Ancient Greek: Πηνελόπεια, ''Pēnelópeia'', or , ''Pēnelópē'') is a character in Homer's ''Odyssey.'' She was the queen of Ithaca and was the daughter of Spartan king Icarius and Asterodia. Penelope is known for her fidelity to her husband Odysseus, despite the attention of more than a hundred suitors during his absence. In one source, Penelope's original name was Arnacia or Arnaea.

Etymology

Glossed by Hesychius as "some kind of bird" (today arbitrarily identified with the Eurasian wigeon, to which Linnaeus gave the binomial ''Anas penelope''), where () is a common Pre-Greek suffix for predatory animals; however, the semantic relation between the proper name and the gloss is not clear. In folk etymology, () is usually understood to combine the Greek word (), "weft", and (), "face", which is considered the most appropriate for a cunning weaver whose motivation is hard to decipher. Robert S. P. Beekes believed the name to be Pre-Greek and related to () or ().

Role in ''The Odyssey''

Penelope is married to the main character, the king of Ithaca, Odysseus (Ulysses in Roman mythology), and daughter of Icarius of Sparta and Periboea (or Polycaste). She only has one son with Odysseus, Telemachus, who was born just before Odysseus was called to fight in the Trojan War. She waits twenty years for Odysseus' return, during which time she devises various cunning strategies to delay marrying any of the 108 suitors (led by Antinous and including Agelaus, Amphinomus, Ctessippus, Demoptolemus, Elatus, Euryades, Eurymachus and Peisander).

On Odysseus's return, disguised as an old beggar, he finds that Penelope has remained faithful. She has devised cunning tricks to delay the suitors, one of which is to pretend to be weaving a burial shroud for Odysseus's elderly father Laertes and claiming that she will choose a suitor when she has finished. Every night for three years, she undoes part of the shroud, until Melantho, a slave, discovers her chicanery and reveals it to the suitors.

Penelope's efforts to delay remarriage is often seen as a symbol of marital fidelity to her husband, Odysseus. But because Athena wants her "to show herself to the wooers, that she might set their hearts a-flutter and win greater honor from her husband and her son than heretofore", Penelope does eventually appear before the suitors Irene de Jong wrote

 As so often, it is Athena who takes the initiative in giving the story a new direction ... Usually the motives of mortal and god coincide, here they do not: Athena wants Penelope to fan the Suitors’ desire for her and (thereby) make her more esteemed by her husband and son; Penelope has no real motive ... she simply feels an unprecedented impulse to meet the men she so loathes ... adding that she might take this opportunity to talk to Telemachus (which she will indeed do).

It is important to consider the alternate perspective of Penelope entertaining, and even enjoying the attention of, her suitors. Italian philosophy historian Giula Sissa offers a unique perspective which supports this idea. The Odyssey allows room for Penelope’s identity free of being Ulysses’ wife. As she awaits his return, she makes a plan to deal with her suitors while also responding to her desires. Sissa discusses how Penelope gives her suitors the opportunity to demonstrate themselves as the best candidate for her attention. Sissa writes,

Penelope innovates. And she does so because she responds in the same register to the desires of the men who have been awaiting her verdict for three years. This is an erotic desire to which she reacts, first, with seductive wiles of messages and promises, and then by inviting them to demonstrate their excellence, not in terms of wealth and social prestige, but in terms of something extremely personal and physical. In order to please Penelope, they have to be on par with Ulysses in showing the might of their bodies.

She is ambivalent, variously asking Artemis to kill her and apparently considering marrying one of the suitors. When the disguised Odysseus returns, she announces in her long interview with him that whoever can string Odysseus's rigid bow and shoot an arrow through twelve axe heads may have her hand. "For the plot of the ''Odyssey'', of course, her decision is the turning point, the move that makes possible the long-predicted triumph of the returning hero".

There is debate as to whether Penelope knows that it is Odysseus. Penelope and the suitors know that Odysseus (were he in fact present) would easily surpass them all in any test of masculine skill, so she may have started the contest as an opportunity for him to reveal his identity. On the other hand, because Odysseus seems to be the only person (except, perhaps, Telemachus) who can actually use the bow, she could just be further delaying her marriage to one of the suitors.

When the contest of the bow begins, none of the suitors are able to string the bow, except Odysseus who wins the contest. Having done so, he proceeds to slaughter the suitors – beginning with Antinous whom he finds drinking from his cup – with help from Telemachus, Athena and the slaves Eumaeus the swineherd and Philoetius the cowherd. Odysseus has now revealed himself in all his glory (with a little makeover by Athena); yet Penelope cannot believe that her husband has really returned – she fears that it is perhaps some god in disguise, as in the story of Alcmene – and tests him by ordering her slave Eurycleia to move the bed in their bridal-chamber. Odysseus protests that this cannot be done, since he made the bed himself and knows that one of its legs is a living olive tree. Penelope finally accepts that he truly is Odysseus, a moment that highlights their ''homophrosýnē'' (, "like-mindedness"). Homer implies that from then on Odysseus would live a long and happy life together with Penelope and Telemachus, wisely ruling his kingdom, and enjoying wide respect and much success.

Role in other myths

Penelope also appears in the lost Greek epic ''Telegony'' that does not survive except in a summary, but that was attributed to Eugamon or Eugammon of Cyrene and written as a sequel to the ''Odyssey''. According to this epic, Odysseus had a son called Telegonus with Circe when he was in her island. When Telegonus had grown to manhood, Circe sent him in search of Odysseus. Shipwrecked on Ithaca by a storm, Telegonus misidentified the island and, assailed by hunger, began plundering it. Odysseus and his oldest son, Telemachus, defended their city and, in the ensuing melée, Telegonus accidentally killed his father with a lance tipped with the venomous spine of a stingray. After discovering the identity of his father, Telegonus brought Telemachus and Penelope to Circe's island. Here, Athena ordered the marriage of Telemachus to Telegonus' mother, the enchantress Circe, while Telegonus married the new widowed Penelope. After burying Odysseus, Circe made the other three immortal. According to Hyginus, Penelope and Telegonus had a son called Italus who, according to some accounts, gave his name to Italy.Hyginus, ''Fabulae'
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This legend inspired Sophocles lost tragedy '' Odysseus Acanthoplex''.

In some early sources such as Pindar, Pan's parents are Apollo and Penelope. Herodotus, Cicero, Apollodorus, and Hyginus all describe Hermes and Penelope as his parents. Pausanias records the story that Penelope had in fact been unfaithful to Odysseus, who banished her to Mantineia upon his return. In the 5th century AD Nonnus names Pan's mother as Penelope of Mantineia in Arcadia. Other sources report that Penelope had slept with all 108 suitors in Odysseus' absence, and gave birth to Pan as a result. This myth reflects the folk etymology that equates Pan's name () with the Greek word for "all" (). The ''Odyssey'' carefully suppresses this variant tradition.

Iconography

Penelope is recognizable in Greek and Roman works, from Attic vase-paintings—the Penelope Painter is recognized by his representations of her—to Roman sculptures copying or improvising upon classical Greek models, by her seated pose, by her reflective gesture of leaning her cheek on her hand, and by her protectively crossed legs, reflecting her long chastity in Odysseus' absence, an unusual pose in any other figure.

Latin tradition

Latin references to Penelope revolved around her sexual loyalty to the absent Odysseus. It suited the marital aspect of Roman society representing the tranquility of the worthy family. She is mentioned by various classical authors including Plautus, Propertius,see Elegies 2.6; 2.9 and 3.12. Propertius was one of the few Latin authors to mention Penelope's weaving ruse. Horace, Ovid, Martial and Statius. The use of Penelope in Latin texts provided a basis for her ongoing use in the Middle Ages and Renaissance as a representation of a chaste wife. This was reinforced by her being named by Saint Jerome among pagan women famed for their chastity.

Feminist retellings

In many modern-day interpretations, Penelope is traditionally viewed as a chaste and faithful wife throughout Homeric literature and is referred to as such by other characters in Greek myth such as Agamemnon and her husband Odysseus. This is due to her dedication to her sexless marriage and resistance to finding a new husband.  Many scholars and popular retellings continue to emphasize this unwavering commitment to her husband and desire for no one else due to these notions. Typical interpretations of Penelope, however, have begun to evolve due from introductions of complex feminist retellings, and because of this, she did not have as much nuance as she typically does today. Many modern-day interpretations portray Penelope as a much more complex character that embodies sensuality in her interactions with the suitors. This recent view has been adopted for many reasons such as ambiguity within interactions between Penelope and the suitors.

The Weaving Trick is a key example of such an ambiguity. In Book 2, Penelope promises the suitors that once she has finished weaving a shroud for her father-in-law, Laertes, she will choose a suitor. Ultimately, this promise serves as a deception where each night she would undo the day’s work to gain control over the situation and postpone her unwanted marriage. While this shows an attempt to delay the suitors, there is still the issue of Penelope sending letters to each of the suitors. Scholars like Guilia Sissa claim the reasoning behind this could show an ambiguous sensuality between the two parties. There is still the perspective that these letters Penelope sends are to satiate her suitors but in the narrative, they are already content to wait for her to continue weaving until they are told otherwise by one of Penelope’s handmaids.

Besides the Weaving trick, Penelope has an extremely insightful dream. In her dream she imagines 20 Geese whom she takes care of (who are take the place of the suitors) and one day as she is tending to them an eagle swoops down and kills all of them with the eagle revealed to be Odysseus. But instead of happiness for the return of her long-lost husband, she only expresses grief at the loss of her beloved birds. She laments in her dream and awakes out of distress. Penelope’s sadness at the loss of the suitors shows that someone she still enjoyed their company and presence within her life; to what end no one can be sure. However, there are alternative interpretations that may suggest her tears stem from a fear of death and the mutilation that occurred.

Another moment that Penelope’s lust can be interpreted is within the archery challenge. Penelope promises to finally choose a suitor to whoever is able to complete her challenge, and this shows her willingness to finally move on. But when she finally thinks about leaving her husband, her main thoughts aren’t that she will not be married to him anymore, but she is saddened by the fact she will have to leave her luxurious home. Penelope’s test itself shows that if she had to pick a new husband, he must be as strong and skillful as her presumed late husband and shows she would only pick someone who would be similar to him, lest she pick someone unworthy of her.

There is also no real reason presented in the text for Penelope to not restate her loyalty to Odysseus and her desire to not remarry. Throughout the text Penelope shows her agency and ability to delay but never decides to make the concrete decision to not get remarried because she hints that she does not want to be alone for the remainder of her life. Contrary to Penelope’s perceptions as a perfect wife incapable of lust or desire of people other than her husband, she shows a sensual desire to the suitors as shown in her interactions within the weaving, dream, and bow challenge.

Feminist retellings of ''The Odyssey'' have greatly impacted this typical perception of Penelope. These retellings portray her with more nuance and agency than older beliefs and give an opportunity for multiple perspectives. Other works such as ''The Penelopiad'' continue to present an alternative to the long-standing beliefs that Penelope was a passive and dutiful wife, renowned for her chaste and faithfulness. Feminist scholars instead highlight her intelligence and cunning within this male-dominated world, emphasizing her ability to manipulate the standards of women during that time that were placed upon her, such as in the example of the Weaving Trick and Bow challenge. These interpretations suggest that her fidelity is not just a matter of blind devotion to her husband but more of a deliberate and strategic choice which can be seen with the many tricks she uses in the same manner as Odysseus.

Penelope's agency

Classics scholars tend to de-center Penelope from the narrative of the Odyssey. Despite playing a central role in Homer’s epic, academics lump Penelope’s choices as reactions to Odysseus’ absence. However, scholars like Giulia Sissa have re-established Penelope’s agency in the Odyssey. Sissa analyzes Penelope’s autonomy in her piece Sex and Sensuality in the Ancient World. Especially in a male-dominated field, we must illuminate female scholars, like Giulia Sissa, in the field of classics.

The suitors

Sissa adopts a provocative interpretation of Penelope’s character. She notes that most scholars identify Penelope as “the good wife” in ancient myths. Odysseus was gone for 20 years on his journey in the Odyssey. The typical interpretation of Penelope is that she maintained her chastity to her husband. Even when Odysseus took up lovers, like Circe and Calypso, Penelope remained loyal to her husband. Compared to other wives in antiquity, like Medea, Penelope embodied the gender expectations of a wife in ancient Greece. For example, Medea killed her husband’s lover (Glauce) and her lover’s family (King Creon) in addition to killing her two sons to prevent her husband from continuing his legacy through inheritance. The accepted notion was that Penelope was loyal even when Odysseus wasn’t. Penelope was not a wicked, evil wife, like Medea, but a faithful, submissive partner. Thus, her character is often typecasted as a passive wife.
Sissa refutes this conventional understanding with her "alternative narrative". Specifically, Sissa emphasizes how Penelope desired the suitors who filled Odysseus’ absence. The typical understanding of Penelope is that she is "free from desires" and is unyielding to her husband, Odysseus. But Sissa argues that Penelope considered taking a second husband. She was not "the perfect wife" blindly following her husband’s will.

The geese

In Book 19, Penelope talks to Odysseus, who is disguised as a beggar/peasant. Penelope poses questions to Odysseus, unknowingly talking to her husband. Penelope shares a dream she had with him. In her dream, twenty geese were eating in the courtyard. Instantly, an eagle flies down to kill all of the geese. The eagle tells Penelope that her husband will return and retaliate against the suitors. Thus, the geese symbolize the suitors and the eagle represents Odysseus. Odysseus, still disguised as a beggar, believes the dream has meaning. He agrees with the eagle’s prophecy that Penelope’s husband will return. However, Penelope disagrees with his interpretation. She maintains her doubts about Odysseus' return and ultimately decides to follow through with a contest to choose her next husband. Penelope was skeptical of her dream and studied it on her own accord. Dreams were often seen as a divine prophecy cast down to mortals. Penelope rejects this notion by dismissing the dream. Even when a man, who is unknowingly Odysseus, agrees with the prophecy, she remains steadfast in her interpretation. Sissa's provocative interpretation of Penelope contrasts with her conventional narrative. This specific moment in Book 19 embodies Penelope’s intelligence and agency. She chooses to make her own decisions, regardless of the gods or what men in her life suggest. Her decisions are hers and hers alone. This is true because Penelope has desires. Penelope does not solely exist as an object for Odysseus' mantle. She is her own person and considers the idea of having a second husband. This moment encapsulates her desire and decision-making capabilities, which clashes with the typical understanding that Penelope is a devoted housewife to Odysseus. Sissa notes that although the audience knows the end of the Odyssey, where Odysseus does come back, that does not negate the decision Penelope makes in Book 19. Her choice still has meaning even if the plot reveals a different outcome. This choice demonstrates Penelope’s assertions. She wanted a second husband and decided to follow through with that decision.

The archery contest

After Penelope decides to take a second husband, she conducts a contest to find her next partner. In Book 21, Penelope hosts an archery contest. Each contestant must string Odysseus’ bow and shoot an arrow through twelve axe heads. Sissa asserts that Penelope wants a husband of the same caliber as Odysseus. Thus, she does not want to settle for anything less than what she deserves. Even the concept of the archery contest itself emphasizes Penelope’s intelligence. Sissa notes that Penelope was already an “outsider” in Odysseus’ house. If Odysseus does not return, it is expected of Penelope to follow her new husband or return to her father. But, Penelope’s clever archery contest skips the extra step of returning to her father’s house as she can leave directly with the winner. Thus, Penelope’s archery contest asserts her independence as she takes control over her fate. Her future does not lie with her father or husband. Instead, as Sissa corroborates, Penelope’s decision to host the contest embodies her desire and decision-making process.

Conclusion

As Sissa argues, Penelope is not a passive “perfect” wife. She has desires which she fulfills through her choices throughout the Odyssey (823).

Notes

References

Primary sources

* Homer, ''Odyssey''
* Ovid, ''Heroides I''
* Lactantius Placidus, ''Commentarii in Statii Thebaida''
* Apollodorus, ''The Library'' with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921.
Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.Greek text available from the same website

*Gaius Julius Hyginus, ''Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus'' translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies
Online version at the Topos Text Project.

Secondary sources

* Amory, Anne (1963), ‘The reunion of Odysseus and Penelope’, in Charles H. Taylor (ed.) ''Essays on the Odyssey: Selected Modern Criticism''. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, pp. 100–36.
* Clayton, Barbara (2004), ''A Penelopean Poetics: Reweaving the Feminine in Homer's Odyssey''. Lanham, Maryland and Oxford: Lexington Books.
* Cohen, Beth (1995, ed.), ''The Distaff Side: Representing the Female in Homer's Odyssey''. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.
* Doherty, Lillian E. (1995), ''Siren Songs: Gender, Audiences, and Narrators in the Odyssey''. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
* Felson, Nancy (1994). Regarding Penelope: From Character to Poetics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
* Finley, M.I. ''The World of Odysseus'', London. Pelican Books (1962).
* Hall, Edith (2008), ''The Return of Ulysses: A Cultural History of Homer's Odyssey''. London and New York: I. B. Tauris.
* Heilbrun, Carolyn G. (1991), ‘What was Penelope unweaving?’, in Heilbrun, ''Hamlet's Mother and Other Women: Feminist Essays on Literature''. London: The Women's Press, pp. 103–11.
* Heitman, Richard (2005), Taking her Seriously: Penelope and the Plot of Homer's Odyssey. Ann Arbor: Michigan University Press. .
* Katz, Marylin Arthur (1991), ''Penelope's Renown: Meaning and Indeterminacy in the Odyssey''. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
* Marquardt, Patricia A. (1985), ‘Penelope “ΠΟΛΥΤΡΟΠΟΣ”’, ''American Journal of Philology'' 106, 32-48.
* Nelson, Thomas J. (2021), ‘Intertextual Agōnes in Archaic Greek Epic: Penelope vs. the Catalogue of Women’, ''Yearbook of Ancient Greek Epic'' 5, 25–57.
* Reece, Steve, "Penelope's ‘Early Recognition’ of Odysseus from a Neoanalytic and Oral Perspective," ''College Literature'' 38.2 (2011) 101-117
Penelopes_Early_Recognition_of_Odysseus
* Roisman, Hanna M. (1987), ‘Penelope's indignation’, ''Transactions of the American Philological Association'' 117, 59-68.
* Schein, Seth L. (1996, ed.), Reading the Odyssey: Selected Interpretive Essays. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
* Wohl, Victoria Josselyn (1993), ‘Standing by the stathmos: the creation of sexual ideology in the ''Odyssey''’, ''Arethusa'' 26, 19-50.
* Zeitlin, Froma (1996). 'Figuring fidelity in Homer's ''Odyssey'' in Froma Zeitlin, ''Playing the Other: Gender and Society in Classical Greek Literature''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 19–52.
* Zerba, Michelle (2009), ‘What Penelope knew: doubt and scepticism in the ''Odyssey''’, ''Classical Quarterly'' 59, 295-316.

External links

''Odyssey'' in English on the Perseus Project

''Penelope Unravelling Her Web''
– a painting of Penelope by Joseph Wright of Derby (from the Getty Museum)

''Penelope and the Suitors'', a painting by John William Waterhouse; explore other paintings depicting Penelope

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Princesses in Greek mythology
Queens in Greek mythology
Characters in the Odyssey
Mythological Laconians
Textiles in folklore
Marriage in classical antiquity
Women of Odysseus