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''Parzival'' () is a medieval
chivalric romance As a literary genre, the chivalric romance is a type of prose and verse narrative that was popular in the noble courts of high medieval and early modern Europe. They were fantastic stories about marvel-filled adventures, often of a chivalri ...
by the poet and knight
Wolfram von Eschenbach Wolfram von Eschenbach (; – ) was a German knight, poet and composer, regarded as one of the greatest epic poets of medieval German literature. As a Minnesinger, he also wrote lyric poetry. Life Little is known of Wolfram's life. Ther ...
in
Middle High German Middle High German (MHG; or ; , shortened as ''Mhdt.'' or ''Mhd.'') is the term for the form of High German, High German language, German spoken in the High Middle Ages. It is conventionally dated between 1050 and 1350, developing from Old High ...
. The poem, commonly dated to the first quarter of the 13th century, centers on the
Arthurian According to legends, King Arthur (; ; ; ) was a king of Britain. He is a folk hero and a central figure in the medieval literary tradition known as the Matter of Britain. In Welsh sources, Arthur is portrayed as a leader of the post-Ro ...
hero Parzival (
Percival Perceval (, also written Percival, Parzival, Parsifal), alternatively called Peredur (), is a figure in the legend of King Arthur, often appearing as one of the Knights of the Round Table. First mentioned by the French author Chrétien de Tr ...
in English) and his long quest for the
Holy Grail The Holy Grail (, , , ) is a treasure that serves as an important motif in Arthurian literature. Various traditions describe the Holy Grail as a cup, dish, or stone with miraculous healing powers, sometimes providing eternal youth or sustenanc ...
following his initial failure to achieve it. ''Parzival'' begins with the knightly adventures of Parzival's father, Gahmuret, his marriage to Herzeloyde (, "heart's sorrow"), and the birth of Parzival. The story continues as Parzival meets three elegant knights, decides to seek
King Arthur According to legends, King Arthur (; ; ; ) was a king of Great Britain, Britain. He is a folk hero and a central figure in the medieval literary tradition known as the Matter of Britain. In Wales, Welsh sources, Arthur is portrayed as a le ...
, and continues a spiritual and physical search for the
Grail The Holy Grail (, , , ) is a treasure that serves as an important motif in Arthurian literature. Various traditions describe the Holy Grail as a cup, dish, or stone with miraculous healing powers, sometimes providing eternal youth or sustenanc ...
. A long section is devoted to Parzival's friend Gawan and his adventures defending himself from a false murder charge and winning the hand of the maiden
Orgeluse The Haughty Maiden of Logres is a character from Arthurian legend, appearing in Chrétien de Troyes' ''Perceval, the Story of the Grail'' and works based on it. She is left nameless in Chrétien's unfinished romance, but Wolfram von Eschenbach, who ...
. Among the most striking elements of the work are its emphasis on the importance of humility, compassion, sympathy and the quest for spirituality.Loomis, Roger Sherman. ''Development of Arthurian Romance'', Hutchsinson and Company, 1963, 70. A major theme in ''Parzival'' is love: heroic acts of
chivalry Chivalry, or the chivalric language, is an informal and varying code of conduct that developed in Europe between 1170 and 1220. It is associated with the medieval Christianity, Christian institution of knighthood, with knights being members of ...
are inspired by true love, which is ultimately fulfilled in marriage.Weigand, Hermann J. ''Three Chapters on Courtly Love in Arthurian France and Germany'', University of North Carolina Press, 1956, 33. Regarded as one of the masterpieces of the
Middle Ages In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the 5th to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and ...
, the romance was the most popular vernacular verse narrative in
medieval Germany The concept of Germany as a distinct region in Central Europe can be traced to Julius Caesar, who referred to the unconquered area east of the Rhine as ''Germania'', thus distinguishing it from Gaul. The victory of the Cherusci, Germanic tribes ...
, and continues to be read and translated into modern languages around the world. Wolfram began a prequel, ''
Titurel ''Titurel'' is a fragmentary Middle High German Romance (heroic literature), romance written by Wolfram von Eschenbach after 1217. The fragments which survive indicate that the story would have served as a prequel to Wolfram's earlier work, ''Parzi ...
'', which was later continued by another writer, while two full romances were written adapting Wolfram's story of Loherangrin.
Richard Wagner Wilhelm Richard Wagner ( ; ; 22 May 181313 February 1883) was a German composer, theatre director, essayist, and conductor who is chiefly known for his operas (or, as some of his mature works were later known, "music dramas"). Unlike most o ...
based his famous opera ''
Parsifal ''Parsifal'' ( WWV 111) is a music drama in three acts by the German composer Richard Wagner and his last composition. Wagner's own libretto for the work is freely based on the 13th-century Middle High German chivalric romance ''Parzival'' of th ...
'', finished in 1882, on ''Parzival''.


Synopsis and structure

''Parzival'' is divided into sixteen books, each composed of several thirty-line
stanza In poetry, a stanza (; from Italian ''stanza'', ; ) is a group of lines within a poem, usually set off from others by a blank line or indentation. Stanzas can have regular rhyme and metrical schemes, but they are not required to have either. ...
s of
rhyming A rhyme is a repetition of similar sounds (usually the exact same phonemes) in the final stressed syllables and any following syllables of two or more words. Most often, this kind of rhyming (''perfect rhyming'') is consciously used for a musica ...
couplet In poetry, a couplet ( ) or distich ( ) is a pair of successive lines that rhyme and have the same metre. A couplet may be formal (closed) or run-on (open). In a formal (closed) couplet, each of the two lines is end-stopped, implying that there ...
s. The stanza lengths fit perfectly onto a manuscript page. For the subject matter, Wolfram von Eschenbach largely adapted the
Grail The Holy Grail (, , , ) is a treasure that serves as an important motif in Arthurian literature. Various traditions describe the Holy Grail as a cup, dish, or stone with miraculous healing powers, sometimes providing eternal youth or sustenanc ...
romance, ''
Perceval, the Story of the Grail ''Perceval, the Story of the Grail'' () is an unfinished verse romance written by Chrétien de Troyes in Old French in the late 12th century. Later authors added 54,000 more lines to the original 9,000 in what is known collectively as the ''Four ...
'', left incomplete by
Chrétien de Troyes Chrétien de Troyes (; ; 1160–1191) was a French poet and trouvère known for his writing on King Arthur, Arthurian subjects such as Gawain, Lancelot, Perceval and the Holy Grail. Chrétien's chivalric romances, including ''Erec and Enide'' ...
.Chrétien de Troyes. ''The Complete Romances of Chrétien de Troyes''-"The Story of the Grail", ed. David Staines, Indiana University Press, 1990, 340. Wolfram claimed that a certain
Kyot Kyot the Provençal is claimed by Wolfram von Eschenbach to have been a Provençal poet who supplied him with the source for his Arthurian romance ''Parzival''. Wolfram may have been referring to the northern French poet Guiot de Provins, but th ...
the
Provençal Provençal may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to Provence, a region of France ** Provençal dialect, a dialect of the Occitan language, spoken in the southeast of France ** ''Provençal'', meaning the whole Occitan language * Provenca ...
supplied additional material drawn from
Arabic Arabic (, , or , ) is a Central Semitic languages, Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) assigns lang ...
and Angevin sources, but most scholars now consider Kyot to be Wolfram's invention and part of the fictional narrative.


Background and early life

Book I opens with the death of King Gandin, Parzival's grandfather. His oldest son, Galoes, receives the kingdom but offers his brother Gahmuret the land of
Anjou Anjou may refer to: Geography and titles France *County of Anjou, a historical county in France and predecessor of the Duchy of Anjou **Count of Anjou, title of nobility *Duchy of Anjou, a historical duchy and later a province of France ** Du ...
in
fief A fief (; ) was a central element in medieval contracts based on feudal law. It consisted of a form of property holding or other rights granted by an overlord to a vassal, who held it in fealty or "in fee" in return for a form of feudal alle ...
. However, Gahmuret departs to gain renown. He travels to the African kingdom of Zazamanc, whose capital is besieged by two different armies. Gahmuret offers his services to the city, and his offer is accepted by Queen Belacane. He conquers the invaders, marries Queen Belacane, and becomes king of Zazamanc and Azagouc. Growing bored with peace, Gahmuret steals away on a ship, abandoning his pregnant wife. Belacane later gives birth to a son,
Feirefiz Feirefiz (also ''Feirefis, Feirafiz, Ferafiz, Firafiz'') is a character in Wolfram von Eschenbach's Arthurian legend, Arthurian poem ''Parzival''. He is the half-brother of Percival, Parzival, the story's hero. He is the child of their father ...
(whose skin is mottled black and white). In Book II, Gahmuret returns to the West, where he meets and marries Queen Herzeloyde. Ever restless, however, he soon returns to fight for the Baruch (meaning the "blessed one", from the Hebrew; i.e., the
caliph A caliphate ( ) is an institution or public office under the leadership of an Islamic steward with Khalifa, the title of caliph (; , ), a person considered a political–religious successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad and a leader of ...
) of
Baghdad Baghdad ( or ; , ) is the capital and List of largest cities of Iraq, largest city of Iraq, located along the Tigris in the central part of the country. With a population exceeding 7 million, it ranks among the List of largest cities in the A ...
, where he is killed after the hardness of his helmet, the "
adamant Adamant in classical mythology is an archaic form of diamond. In fact, the English word ''diamond'' is ultimately derived from ''adamas'', via Late Latin and Old French . In ancient Greek (), genitive (), literally 'unconquerable, untameable'. ...
" is compromised by the enemy using billygoat's blood. Book III tells of how the pregnant Herzeloyde, grief-stricken at her husband's death, retires to a secluded forest dwelling and vows to protect her new child, Parzival, from the ways of knighthood at all costs by raising him entirely ignorant of chivalry and the ways of men. His seclusion is shattered by three knights passing who tell him of
King Arthur According to legends, King Arthur (; ; ; ) was a king of Great Britain, Britain. He is a folk hero and a central figure in the medieval literary tradition known as the Matter of Britain. In Wales, Welsh sources, Arthur is portrayed as a le ...
's court at
Camelot Camelot is a legendary castle and Royal court, court associated with King Arthur. Absent in the early Arthurian material, Camelot first appeared in 12th-century French romances and, since the Lancelot-Grail cycle, eventually came to be described ...
. Now captivated by the notion of becoming knight, he decides to go join Arthur's court. His mother is heartbroken at the news of his decision but allows him to depart, dressing him in fool's garments in the hopes that the knights will refuse to take him in. Soon after his departure she dies of utter despair.


Beginnings of knighthood

The first part of the journey takes place completely in the world of King Arthur, where the colourful and strange appearance of Parzival awakens the interest of the court. After becoming entangled in courtly intrigue between Duke Orilus and his wife Jeschute, he meets his cousin Sigune who reveals to him his true name. Parzival also fights and kills Ither, the red knight of Kukumerlant. Putting on the red knight's armor, he rides away from the court and meets Gurnemanz, from whom he learns the duties of a knight, especially self-control and moderation. Gurnemanz also advises him to avoid impudent curiosity. In Book IV, Parzival meets and falls in love with Queen Condwiramurs. She has inherited her father's realm, but lost much of it to an enemy king who has besieged her town. Parzival uses his newfound chivalric skills to restore her land. They marry, but he leaves soon afterwards to seek news of his mother. In Book V, he arrives at the castle of the
Grail The Holy Grail (, , , ) is a treasure that serves as an important motif in Arthurian literature. Various traditions describe the Holy Grail as a cup, dish, or stone with miraculous healing powers, sometimes providing eternal youth or sustenanc ...
. He does not ask his host, Anfortas, about his mysterious wound, however, or about the magical objects paraded before him, remembering Gurnemanz's advice to not be too curious. The next morning Parzival finds himself completely alone in a deserted castle, leading him to speculate that his experiences of the previous night were an illusion conjured by malevolent spirits to snare him.


Return to Arthur's court

Parzival returns to the world of Arthur and again meets Sigune, who tells him of how he should have asked the lord of the castle a question, but does not specify. She then vows to never speak to him again. He also meets Jeschute again, who was unwittingly humiliated by him the last time, and defeats Orilus in single combat. Eventually Parzival renews the marriage of Jeschute and Orilus. Parzival returns in Book VI as a perfect potential member of the
Round Table The Round Table (; ; ; ) is King Arthur's famed table (furniture), table in the Arthurian legend, around which he and his knights congregate. As its name suggests, it has no head, implying that everyone who sits there has equal status, unlike co ...
to King Arthur. But during a festive meal, Cundrie, messenger of the Grail, appears, curses Parzival in the name of the Grail and claims that Parzival had lost his honour. Parzival immediately leaves the court even though he is not able to understand his guilt. Gawan takes over as the central figure of Books VII to VIII as he tries to clear his name of a false charge of murder.


The Grail quest

In Book IX, we learn that Parzival fights for the good but suffers from his alienation from God. After nearly five years of wandering and fighting, from combat he gains a new horse, owned by a Grail knight, and this horse leads him one
Good Friday Good Friday, also known as Holy Friday, Great Friday, Great and Holy Friday, or Friday of the Passion of the Lord, is a solemn Christian holy day commemorating the crucifixion of Jesus and his death at Calvary (Golgotha). It is observed during ...
to Trevrizent to whom he introduces himself as a penitent sinner. He stays with this holy man for fourteen days and learns about the hidden meaning of life and the true meaning of the Grail, and also is informed that his mother is the sister of the
Grail King The Fisher King (; ; ; ) is a figure in Arthurian legend, the last in a long line of British kings tasked with guarding the Holy Grail. The Fisher King is both the protector and physical embodiment of his lands, but a wound renders him impotent ...
. He makes a step towards a life of spiritual understanding. Through his loneliness and through his yearning for the Grail and for Condwiramurs he puts himself outside the world of Arthur. He is called to another world, that of the Grail. Books X to XIV tell of the adventures of Parzival's friend Gawan, considered the second greatest knight after Parzival. Gawan wanders into and becomes trapped in the Land of Wonders: the bewitched realm of the evil magician Klingsor / Clinschor. There he becomes enchanted with Orgeluse, the second most beautiful woman in the world after Parzival's wife, Condwiramurs. In vying for the hand of Orgeluse, who is also trapped in the Land of Wonders, Gawan defeats several of the world's greatest knights. Gawan then defeats Klingsor's "Castle of Wonders," breaking the curse of the Land of Wonders and freeing hundreds of ladies trapped in the castle, including King Arthur's mother, Arnive. Through his heroic deeds, Gawan finally wins the hand of Orgeluse, and by his defeat of the Castle of Wonders he receives all the riches that Klingsor had stolen and placed in the castle, becoming one of the world's wealthiest men. In Book XV, Parzival fights with a knight who is the first to seem more adept than he. Parzival's sword breaks but, instead of slaying him, the other knight sees no honor in such a feat and both retire to the grass. There they learn that they share the same father. "I was against my own self," says Parzival to
Feirefiz Feirefiz (also ''Feirefis, Feirafiz, Ferafiz, Firafiz'') is a character in Wolfram von Eschenbach's Arthurian legend, Arthurian poem ''Parzival''. He is the half-brother of Percival, Parzival, the story's hero. He is the child of their father ...
, his brother from afar. Again Cundrie appears and proclaims now that Parzival's name has appeared on the Grail, marking him as the new Grail King. During his journey to the Grail in Book XVI, Parzival reunites with his wife and takes Feirefiz as a companion. Feirefiz cannot see the Grail, but he can see the Grail maiden and promptly falls in love with her.


Scholarly debates

Some details of the romance have inspired controversy, partly because the narrative is interspersed with humorous anecdotes by Wolfram. It is not clear whether many of the claims he makes are intended to be taken as fact or as jest. For example, in one passage he claims to be totally illiterate: whether the original poem was composed as part of an
oral tradition Oral tradition, or oral lore, is a form of human communication in which knowledge, art, ideas and culture are received, preserved, and transmitted orally from one generation to another.Jan Vansina, Vansina, Jan: ''Oral Tradition as History'' (19 ...
or as a written work is a subject of debate among scholars. Wolfram also claimed that a lost Arabic manuscript by a descendant of
Solomon Solomon (), also called Jedidiah, was the fourth monarch of the Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy), Kingdom of Israel and Judah, according to the Hebrew Bible. The successor of his father David, he is described as having been the penultimate ...
was discovered by a certain
Kyot Kyot the Provençal is claimed by Wolfram von Eschenbach to have been a Provençal poet who supplied him with the source for his Arthurian romance ''Parzival''. Wolfram may have been referring to the northern French poet Guiot de Provins, but th ...
. Although the claims of Wolfram's narrator about this source may be dubious, some critics have maintained that the knowledge about the Orient that is shown throughout the text suggests he may well have worked from at least one
Oriental The Orient is a term referring to the East in relation to Europe, traditionally comprising anything belonging to the Eastern world. It is the antonym of the term ''Occident'', which refers to the Western world. In English, it is largely a meto ...
source.


Women in ''Parzival''

The place of women in
medieval German literature Medieval German literature refers to the literature of Medieval Germany. It can be subdivided into two main periods: *Old High German literature (750–1050) is the product of the monasteries and is almost exclusively religious in nature *Middle H ...
was in general an exalted one, and Wolfram as an author reflects this by making womanhood an ideal for his characters. Characters such as Herzeloyde, Sigune and Condwiramurs are not only intimately involved in Parzival's search, but also closely related to the Grail itself.Gibbs, Marion. "The Role of Woman in Wolfram’s Parzival." German Life and Letters. 21.4 (1968): 296-308. Print. The character of Herzeloyde, Parzival's mother, is a virtuous woman. With a selfless devotion and the humility that is another vital attribute to the Grail King and as a descendant of the Grail family, she makes both the conscious and unconscious choice to guide Parzival on the quest to take his fated place as next in the lineage. Her advice is interpreted in the context of his finding both love and God as guidance towards better being prepared to take on the Grail. The womanly kinship of Sigune is the next guide that Parzival encounters. Her appearance (at three times in the tale) is essential and occurs on each occasion at a significant stage in his progress, at a point when he is in urgent need of some kind of guidance. Her first contribution is to give Parzival his identity, an essential detail that his mother was not able to impart. She directs him to Arthur's Court, and in doing so starts him off on the quest. In their second meeting, she scolds him for failing to understand the nature of his quest and goal, ultimately pushing him to the atonement needed to fully grasp his duty as Grail King. Thirdly, the last meeting of Parzival and Sigune is one of quiet recognition, her life a prayer in itself that anticipates the same state for Parzival. The last woman for Parzival is his wife, Condwiramurs. Her role lies in the "love of a devoted wife". She is interesting in that her vitality lies in what she is, rather than her specific guidance to Parzival. When Parzival must recognize his inability to possess her, he leaves her and does not return. Her symbolic significance allows her character to be a guide in terms of the readiness of Parzival. Ultimately, both the Grail and Condwiramurs combine to form Parzival's goal. She spurs him on his quest, and like the Grail itself, is an inspiration and reward. In the end, her guidance is best represented by her name on the Grail as well as Parzival's.


Influence

Wolfram followed ''Parzival'' with the fragmentary romance ''
Titurel ''Titurel'' is a fragmentary Middle High German Romance (heroic literature), romance written by Wolfram von Eschenbach after 1217. The fragments which survive indicate that the story would have served as a prequel to Wolfram's earlier work, ''Parzi ...
'', which serves as a prologue. This poem was continued by a later poet known as Albrecht. Wolfram's story of Loherangrin was expanded into two full romances, ''
Lohengrin Lohengrin () is a character in German Arthurian literature. The son of Parzival (Percival), he is a knight of the Holy Grail sent in a boat pulled by swans to rescue a maiden who can never ask his identity. His story, which first appears in Wo ...
'' and ''Lorengel'', and later German writers often referenced ''Parzival'' in their works.
Ludwig II of Bavaria Ludwig II (Ludwig Otto Friedrich Wilhelm; 25 August 1845 – 13 June 1886), also called the Swan King or the Fairy Tale King (), was King of Bavaria from 1864 until his death in 1886. He also held the titles of Count Palatine of the Rhine, Duke ...
was inspired by the poem, and Singers' Hall in his castle is decorated with tapestries and paintings depicting the story. He was also patron to the composer
Richard Wagner Wilhelm Richard Wagner ( ; ; 22 May 181313 February 1883) was a German composer, theatre director, essayist, and conductor who is chiefly known for his operas (or, as some of his mature works were later known, "music dramas"). Unlike most o ...
and encouraged him to create the opera ''
Parsifal ''Parsifal'' ( WWV 111) is a music drama in three acts by the German composer Richard Wagner and his last composition. Wagner's own libretto for the work is freely based on the 13th-century Middle High German chivalric romance ''Parzival'' of th ...
'' based on the romance. He then commissioned eight private performances of the work.


Adaptation history


Literary adaptations in German

There are three works that accurately represent adaptations of the original material in three epochs of German literature: ''Der Parcival'' (1831/1832) by Friedrich de la Motte Fouquè for
Romanticism Romanticism (also known as the Romantic movement or Romantic era) was an artistic and intellectual movement that originated in Europe towards the end of the 18th century. The purpose of the movement was to advocate for the importance of subjec ...
, ''Das Spiel vomfragen / Die Reise zum Sonoren Land'' (1989) by
Peter Handke Peter Handke (; born 6 December 1942) is an Austrians, Austrian novelist, playwright, translator, poet, film director, and screenwriter. He was awarded the 2019 Nobel Prize in Literature "for an influential work that with linguistic ingenuity has ...
for
modernism Modernism was an early 20th-century movement in literature, visual arts, and music that emphasized experimentation, abstraction, and Subjectivity and objectivity (philosophy), subjective experience. Philosophy, politics, architecture, and soc ...
, and '' Der Rote Ritter'' (1993) by
Adolf Muschg Adolf Muschg (born 13 May 1934) is a Swiss writer and professor of literature. Muschg was a member of the Gruppe Olten. Biography Adolf Muschg was born in Zollikon, canton of Zürich, Switzerland. He studied German studies, English studies ...
for
postmodernism Postmodernism encompasses a variety of artistic, Culture, cultural, and philosophical movements that claim to mark a break from modernism. They have in common the conviction that it is no longer possible to rely upon previous ways of depicting ...
.
Tankred Dorst Tankred Dorst (19 December 1925 – 1 June 2017) was a German playwright and storyteller. Dorst lived and worked in Munich. His farces, parables, one-act-plays and adaptations were inspired by the theatre of the absurd and the works of Ionesco ...
adapted the material to a stage play titled ''Parzival'', which premiered in 1987 at the Thalia Theatre, Hamburg. A second adaptation for the stage was created by
Lukas Bärfuss Lukas Bärfuss (born 30 December 1971) is a Swiss writer and playwright who writes in German. He won the Georg Büchner Prize in 2019. Biography Born in Thun, Switzerland in 1971, Lukas Bärfuss began training as a bookseller after graduating f ...
and premiered in 2010 at the Schauspielhaus, Hannover. Additionally, there are various adaptations of the original material in the form of children's books and other popular media.


Opera

Perhaps the best-known adaptation of ''Parzival'' is
Richard Wagner Wilhelm Richard Wagner ( ; ; 22 May 181313 February 1883) was a German composer, theatre director, essayist, and conductor who is chiefly known for his operas (or, as some of his mature works were later known, "music dramas"). Unlike most o ...
's ''
Parsifal ''Parsifal'' ( WWV 111) is a music drama in three acts by the German composer Richard Wagner and his last composition. Wagner's own libretto for the work is freely based on the 13th-century Middle High German chivalric romance ''Parzival'' of th ...
'', first performed in 1882. Wolfram's ''Parzival'' also serves as the basis for the children's opera ''Elster and Parzival'' by the Austrian composer Paul Hertel, which premiered in 2003 at the
Deutsche Oper Berlin The Deutsche Oper Berlin is a German opera company located in the Charlottenburg district of Berlin. The resident building is the country's second largest opera house (after Munich's) and also home to the Berlin State Ballet. Since 2004, the ...
.


Editions and translations

The standard edition of the text is Karl Lachmann's, 1926. This is the basis for all modern editions, including: * Wolfram von Eschenbach. ''Parzival''. De Gruyter, 2003. English translations: * Wolfram von Eschenbach. ''Parzival with Titurel and The Love-lyrics''. trans. Cyril Edwards. Boydell Press, 2004; Oxford University Press 2006. & (2009: "Parzival and Titurel - Oxford World's Classics". ISBN 978-0-1995-3920-8) * Wolfram von Eschenbach. ''Parzival''. trans. A.T.Hatto. Penguin, 1980. * Wolfram von Eschenbach. ''Parzival, A Romance of the Middle Ages''. trans. Helen M. Mustard and Charles E. Passage. Vintage Books, 1961. * Wolfram von Eschenbach. ''Parzival''. trans. Jessie L. Weston. Digireads.com, 2014. * Wolfram von Eschenbach. ''Parzival''. trans. A.S. Kline. Poetry in Translation, 2024. Modern German translations: * Wolfram von Eschenbach. ''Parzival''. De Gruyter, 2003. With prose translation by Peter Knecht. * Wolfram von Eschenbach. ''Parzival''. (2 vols). Deutscher Klassiker Verlag, 2006. With verse translation by Dieter Kühn. * Wolfram von Eschenbach. ''Parzival''. (2 vols). Reclam, 1986. ; With translation by Wolfgang Spiewok. * Hermann Reichert. Wolfram von Eschenbach, Parzival, für Anfänger. 2. Aufl. Wien: Praesens Verlag, 2007. Fictional retelling of Wolfram's romance: * Clarke, Lindsay. ''Parzival and the Stone from Heaven — a Grail Romance for our Time''. Oxford: Godstow Press, 2011.


Explanatory notes


References


Bibliography

* * * *


Further reading

* Green, D. H. ''The Art of Recognition in Wolfram's Parzival''. Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982. * Groos, Arthur. ''Romancing the Grail: Genre, Science, and Quest in Wolfram's'' Parzival. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995. * Groos, Arthur. "Wolfram von Eschenbach's 'Bow Metaphor' and the Narrative Technique of ''Parzival''." ''MLN'' 87.3, 1972. 391-408. * Springer, Otto. "Wolfram's ''Parzival''" in ''Arthurian Literature in the Middle Ages'', Roger S. Loomis (ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1959.


External links


Literary Encyclopedia entry on ''Parzival''

Electronic version of a ''Parzival''-manuscript from the ''Bibliotheca Palatina'' (Universitätsbibliothek Heidelberg)
-from the workplace of Diebold Lauber in Hagenau around 1443-1446.

* (Original in Old High German, with prose glosses in modern German.) * (Rhymed verse translation into modern German.) * {{Authority control 13th-century poems Medieval German poems Holy Grail Romance (genre) Poetry based on works by Chrétien de Troyes Lohengrin