Participle (Ancient Greek)
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participle In linguistics, a participle (; abbr. ) is a nonfinite verb form that has some of the characteristics and functions of both verbs and adjectives. More narrowly, ''participle'' has been defined as "a word derived from a verb and used as an adject ...
is a non-finite nominal verb form declined for gender, number and case (thus, it is a verbal adjective) and has many functions in
Ancient Greek Ancient Greek (, ; ) includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the classical antiquity, ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (), Greek ...
. It can be
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,
middle Middle or The Middle may refer to: * Centre (geometry), the point equally distant from the outer limits. Places * Middle (sheading), a subdivision of the Isle of Man * Middle Bay (disambiguation) * Middle Brook (disambiguation) * Middle Creek ...
or
passive Passive may refer to: * Passive voice, a grammatical voice common in many languages, see also Pseudopassive * Passive language, a language from which an interpreter works * Passivity (behavior), the condition of submitting to the influence of ...
and can be used in the
present The present is the period of time that is occurring now. The present is contrasted with the past, the period of time that has already occurred; and the future, the period of time that has yet to occur. It is sometimes represented as a hyperplan ...
,
future The future is the time after the past and present. Its arrival is considered inevitable due to the existence of time and the laws of physics. Due to the apparent nature of reality and the unavoidability of the future, everything that currently ex ...
,
aorist Aorist ( ; abbreviated ) verb forms usually express perfective aspect and refer to past events, similar to a preterite. Ancient Greek grammar had the aorist form, and the grammars of other Indo-European languages and languages influenced by the ...
and
perfect Perfect commonly refers to: * Perfection; completeness, and excellence * Perfect (grammar), a grammatical category in some languages Perfect may also refer to: Film and television * ''Perfect'' (1985 film), a romantic drama * ''Perfect'' (20 ...
tense; these tenses normally represent not absolute time but only time relative to the main verb of the sentence. In general, as it shows no personal endings, its main use is to express an action or situation that accompanies the action or situation expressed by the main verb.


Terminology

The Greek grammarians called a participle a μετοχή 'participation, share', because it shares the properties of a verb and of an adjective. Latin
calque In linguistics, a calque () or loan translation is a word or phrase borrowed from another language by literal word-for-word or root-for-root translation. When used as a verb, "to calque" means to borrow a word or phrase from another language ...
d the word as ''participium'', from which English gets ''participle''.


Uses of the participle

Three main syntactic uses of the participle can be distinguished: (a) the participle as a
modifier Modifier may refer to: * Grammatical modifier, a word that modifies the meaning of another word or limits its meaning ** Compound modifier, two or more words that modify a noun ** Dangling modifier, a word or phrase that modifies a clause in an am ...
of a noun (attributive participle) (b) the participle used as an obligatory
argument An argument is a series of sentences, statements, or propositions some of which are called premises and one is the conclusion. The purpose of an argument is to give reasons for one's conclusion via justification, explanation, and/or persu ...
of a verb (supplementary participle), (c) the participle as an
adverbial In English grammar, an adverbial ( abbreviated ) is a word (an adverb) or a group of words (an adverbial clause or adverbial phrase) that modifies or more closely defines the sentence or the verb. (The word ''adverbial'' itself is also used as a ...
satellite of a verbal
predicate Predicate or predication may refer to: * Predicate (grammar), in linguistics * Predication (philosophy) * several closely related uses in mathematics and formal logic: **Predicate (mathematical logic) **Propositional function **Finitary relation, o ...
(circumstantial or adverbial participle).


The attributive participle

The
attributive In grammar, an attributive expression is a word or phrase within a noun phrase that modifies the head noun. It may be an: * attributive adjective * attributive noun * attributive verb or other part of speech, such as an attributive numeral. ...
participle is often, though not always, used with the article (which can be either generic or particular); it functions as a common
adjective An adjective (abbreviations, abbreviated ) is a word that describes or defines a noun or noun phrase. Its semantic role is to change information given by the noun. Traditionally, adjectives are considered one of the main part of speech, parts of ...
, it can be in every tense stem, and it is on a par with – and thus often translated as – a
relative clause A relative clause is a clause that modifies a noun or noun phrase and uses some grammatical device to indicate that one of the arguments in the relative clause refers to the noun or noun phrase. For example, in the sentence ''I met a man who wasn ...
. It shows
agreement Agreement may refer to: Agreements between people and organizations * Gentlemen's agreement, not enforceable by law * Trade agreement, between countries * Consensus (disambiguation), a decision-making process * Contract, enforceable in a court of ...
with a noun, present or implied, in a sentence, and can be assigned any syntactic role an adjective can hold. :: :: The man who spoke this opinion was Pisander. Like any adjective it can be used substantively (or be nominalized) by omission of an understood noun (easily recoverable from the context): :: :: Whoever (= any man or soldier who) wants to go home… :: :: He came back bringing the (man/one) who was going to give the poison. Many participles of this sort are equivalent to – and thus translated as – nouns, e.g.: :: = the person put on exile, or the person accused, i.e. the exile, or the defendant :: = the thing that is going to happen, i.e. the future :: = the person that steals, i.e. the thief An adverbial notion may be inherent in an attributive participle; the usual notions are those of purpose or consequence (in the future tense), and condition (in all tense stems but the future, with negative particle μή). The following example has a future participle indicating purpose: :: :: They have publicly enacted this specific law to prevent these things.


The supplementary participle

The supplementary participle is always without the article (predicative position of the participle is employed) and can be in any tense stem. This participle has two major uses: (1) in indirect discourse, and (2) not in indirect discourse.


The supplementary participle in indirect statements

When in this use, the participle corresponds to a particular tense and mood of a simple indicative of any tense, and, if accompanied by the particle ἄν, to
potential Potential generally refers to a currently unrealized ability. The term is used in a wide variety of fields, from physics to the social sciences to indicate things that are in a state where they are able to change in ways ranging from the simple r ...
optative The optative mood ( or ; abbreviated ) is a grammatical mood that indicates a wish or hope regarding a given action. It is a superset of the cohortative mood and is closely related to the subjunctive mood but is distinct from the desiderative ...
or potential indicative. Verbs taking such a participial clause as an
object complement In grammar, an object complement is a predicative expression that follows a direct object of an attributive ditransitive or resultative verb and that complements the direct object of the sentence by describing it. Object complements are constit ...
are: i) Verbs of perceiving, knowing, discovering, remembering and so on such as: "see that", "hear that", "perceive, notice that", "come to know, perceive, realize that", "not to know", "find (on arrival) that", "find that", "catch, detect someone doing something" (passive: ), "learn, know that", "know that", "know (as a witness), or be conscious that", "understand that", "consider that" "remember that", "forget that". ii) Verbs of ''presentation'', i.e. verbs meaning '"announce, show, prove"' such as: "report that", (ἀπο-, ἐπι-) "show, explain, point out that", "prove that". :: :: I assume that you agree, since you don’t give any reply. :: :: And I know too that in the past they were afraid to be seen in possession of gold. In many of the above cases this participle is interchangeable with a clause introduced by ὅτι or ὡς, for example: :: :: For who does not know that they (the Thebans) have portioned out our land for grazing and have razed our city to the ground? The following case constructions are available for such a supplementary participle: a. The logical "subject" of the participle and the grammatical subject of the governing verb are coreferential, the participle being put in the nominative case, agreeing with it (we are dealing with a so-called ''nominative plus participle'' construction; see also nominative and infinitive): :: :: They see ''that they are in no position to get the upper hand :: Direct form: We are in no position to get the upper hand''. b. The supplementary participle modifies a
noun phrase A noun phrase – or NP or nominal (phrase) – is a phrase that usually has a noun or pronoun as its head, and has the same grammatical functions as a noun. Noun phrases are very common cross-linguistically, and they may be the most frequently ...
as if it were a "subject" of its own (there is no coreference) and both the participle and this noun are put in the accusative case, just like an
accusative and infinitive In grammar, accusative and infinitive (also ''Accusativus cum infinitivo'' or accusative plus infinitive, frequently abbreviated ACI or A+I) is the name for a syntactic construction first described in Latin and Greek, also found in various forms ...
construction. This is the case where the
argument An argument is a series of sentences, statements, or propositions some of which are called premises and one is the conclusion. The purpose of an argument is to give reasons for one's conclusion via justification, explanation, and/or persu ...
of the verb is not the noun, even though it seems to be a real accusative object, but the verbal notion expressed by the participle itself: :: :: I understand hat some people break the laws. Independent/direct speech form: "" ''Some people break the law''. :: :: He proved [that Lysander killed Philocles Independent form: "" ''Lysander killed Philocles''. In each of the above sentences, if the participle is taken away, then the remaining construction is Grammaticality">ungrammatical, considering that each governing verb retains its initial meaning. This proves that the noun or pronoun is an argument of the participle only, rather than of the verb. Speaking in modern linguistic terms, this is a case of exceptional case marking (ECM), and verbs allowing that are called Raising (syntax), raising-to-object ones. However, with verbs like "see", "hear", "find", there is another possible construction that does not involve indirect speech, but is a mere description of a sensory input: :: :: Those of us who entered first saw him still lying beside my wife, those who came later saw him standing naked on the bed. (Not: We saw hat he was lying) : :: :: I am happy to hear Socrates (when he is) having a discussion. (Not: I hear hat he is discussing) In the above sentences and are second arguments of the verbs and respectively, while the participles are added as their third arguments (in modern
linguistic Linguistics is the scientific study of language. The areas of linguistic analysis are syntax (rules governing the structure of sentences), semantics (meaning), Morphology (linguistics), morphology (structure of words), phonetics (speech sounds ...
terms called (verbal) ''secondary predicates'' or ''small clauses''). Here by no means can any ECM phenomenon be attributed. Even further, with such verbs as , which normally take an object in the genitive denoting the source producing a sound, the distinction between the two types of construction is clear. Compare the above example, where is in the genitive case, with the one below, where is in the accusative case: :: :: He heard hat Cyrus was in Cilicia


The supplementary participle not in indirect discourse

When this participle is used not in indirect discourse, the following constructions are possible: i) It is part of a predicate formed out by a copula verb, used mostly as an auxiliary verb; such verbs are: “be”, “become”, rarely “happen to be”. :: :: The children take after their parents not only as fas as the innate characteristics are concerned but also as the acquired ones. ii) It forms a predicate with a quasi-copular verb that expresses a way of being, like , "be manifest", "be hidden, unobserved, unseen, unnoticed, unaware", "be gone, away or absent", "happen to be", "be beforehand with". Semantically, with all these verbs it is the participle itself that expresses the main action, while in many cases the quasi-copular verb qualifies this action almost like an adverbial constituent. :: :: He was after all in the very moment no better in intellect than a tadpole, to say nothing of being better than any other man. :: :: It was evident that Lysis wanted to come/ Evidently Lysis wanted to come. All these verbs always have a grammatical subject that is corefential with the logical subject of the participle; only the verbs and may have an appended accusative object, as a third argument of the verb, denoting the person from whom someone/something is kept hidden or the person that someone overtakes in the action expressed by the participle. :: :: Cleon could not have departed with his army without being noticed by him. :: :: Lysander was beforehand with Pausanias in coming to Aliartus/ Lysander came to Aliartus before Pausanias (did). NOTE: some of those verbs (such as verbs of presentation: ) may (also) be used as governing verbs in indirect discourse supplemented either by a participle or a clausal construction introduced by the particles ὅτι or ὡς. iii) It is the complement of verbs denoting ''commencement, continuation (patience, tolerance) or termination (fatigue)'' of an action, and it is always in the present tense stem; such verbs are: "begin, take the initiative in", "start, begin", "cause to cease, stop from", "cease, stop", "leave off, cease", "give up", "be tired or weary", "spend my whole life", , , , , "continue, keep up", "tolerate", "overlook". With these verbs the participle's logical subject is coreferent with the verb's grammatical subject, if there is no object in the structure, or else with the object, and the participle agrees in case (nominative or accusative/genitive) with this word. :: :: And I will begin proving that what I say is the truth, by explaining (Persian) religion. :: :: I beg you not to tolerate my personal enemiessaying such things. :: :: So both you and your disciples you must restrain yourselves and listen without laughing (literal translation: please do bear listening without laughing). :: :: He stopped the/your allies from revolting/defecting from you. iv) A supplementary participle can be used with verbs expressing ''passions of the soul'', such as "be vexed", "be ashamed", "be pleased", "be happy", "be sorry", "get angry". :: :: You ask the right questions, Socrates, and I am glad to answer those who ask the right questions. :: :: And will someone who is in love with wisdom... be ungry about dying and he will not go there gladly? v) Finally, it is used with some verbs not easy to classify: "behave well, honourably, fairly, badly", "gratify, favour", "do wrong", "defeat", "prevail, survive", "have the better of", "be worsted by", "be left behind, fall short". :: :: You are doing well by taking care of the old men.


The circumstantial (adverbial) participle

The circumstantial participle, used as a satellite of another verbal form, is always without the article (i.e. it is put in the predicative position). It is added as a modifier to a noun or pronoun to denote the circumstance(s) under which the action of another verbal form (a finite verb or an infinitive/another participle) takes place. The action of the main verb is the main one. It is also called adverbial because it qualifies the main verb like any other adverb, adverbially used adjective, adverbial prepositional phrase, adverbial clause or supplementary predicate. In most of the cases it has the force of a dependent clause denoting time, cause, purpose, supposition, opposition, concession. Often it denotes manner-means or any other ''attendant circumstance''. Two main constructions can be distinguished: i) the participle as a modifier agrees in case (and most of the times in gender and number) with a noun or pronoun that is an argument of the main verb, usually subject, direct or indirect object or dative of interest of any kind. In this case the logical subject of the participle is coreferent to that verbal argument (''participium conjuctum''). ii) participial phrases, composed by the participle and a quasi-subject noun phrase; such structures form a full new predicate, additional to the verbal predicate: a so-called
absolute construction In linguistics, an absolute construction is a grammatical construction standing apart from a normal or usual syntactical relation with other words or sentence elements. It can be a non-finite clause that is subordinate in form and modifies an enti ...
. It is so called because case marking of the whole construction stands "loosened, separated, free" from the verbal (or other)
argumentation An argument is a series of sentences, statements, or propositions some of which are called premises and one is the conclusion. The purpose of an argument is to give reasons for one's conclusion via justification, explanation, and/or persu ...
Two subtypes can be distinguished: (1)
Genitive absolute In Ancient Greek grammar, the genitive absolute is a grammatical construction consisting of a participle and often a noun both in the genitive case, which is very similar to the Latin grammar#Ablative, ablative absolute in Latin. A genitive absolut ...
: the participle modifies a noun or pronoun (as if its "subject") that stands in the genitive case; in this construction normally the word serving as the logical subject of the participle has no coreference to any other verbal argument, especially the subject. But exceptions are found. (2) Accusative absolute: it is found when the verb in which the participle belongs is impersonal or so used, or when it is an impersonal expression; in this case the subject of the participle is usually an infinitive, as it would be if an impersonal verb in some finite mood was used. This kind of participle is always put in the neuter gender, modifying a neuter noun, as an infinitive really is. Nevertheless, it is also possible for a personal verb's participle to stand with its noun in the accusative absolute construction, if only it is preceded by the particles or and expresses cause or conditional comparison respectively.


Use of tenses

Normally all circumstantial participles, according to the grammatical tense stem used for their morphological formation, express only time relative to that of the main verb, but they always express stage of action. Nevertheless, the future stem is only used for denoting purpose, and seldom for denoting future cause (in the latter case normally the particle precedes the participle).


Kinds of circumstantial participles


=Temporal

= :* The ''temporal participle'' is used in the present or in the aorist tense stem (the perfect being fairly rare). It expresses a simultaneous or an anterior action. It is sometimes found with temporal adverbs such as "while, simultaneously", "then", "after", "immediately", "already", "meanwhile". :: Xenophon, ''Hellenica'' 2.2.2 :: After sailing to Lampsacus he set about repairing the ships. :: :: They were singing the paean while they were sailing. :* The ''causal participle'' is used with every tense stem (rarely future when preceded by the particle ὡς). :: :: As I saw that they were sad I promised to write the letter. :: :: As I know that you are competent, I am not afraid.


=Causal

= Some particles may precede a causal participle: : a. , , , , , : the reason/cause is presented by the speaker, narrator, or writer as an independent fact (objective reason/cause): :: :: As in fact such a calamity had been unusual with the Lacedaemonians, there was great mourning throughout the Laconian army. : b. : the reason/cause is presented as an idea, thought or personal opinion of the subject of the main verb (subjective cause or reason). :: :: They found fault with Pericles, on the belief/ground that he had persuaded them to engage in the war.


=Purpose

= The ''final (telic) participle'' (expresses purpose) is used with the future tense stem. It forms the negation with μή. If the participle is modifying a verb that expresses movement, then it usually stands alone. If the verb does not express a movement then the participle is often found with the particle (in this case the intention of the subject is underlined as a personal consideration, and in many cases it is difficult to determine whether this participle is final or causal). :: :: He left in order to announce the events. :: :: He lies in order to hide the truth. (or causal: on the belief that he will hide the truth) :: :: He sent Aristotle in order for him to announce the agreements (Aristotle will announce).


=Conditional

= The ''conditional participle'' is used in all tense stems except the future (negated by μή). It stands as the protasis (:hypothesis) of a conditional sentence, the main verb being the apodosis. It can express any type of conditional thought, but is by far more often used along with potential moods or future indicative (and future-like expressions), expressing any kind of future condition. :: (= ). :: That might well happen to you now if you do not listen to us.


=Concessive

= The ''concessive participle'' (denotes opposition, concession, or limitation) may be preceded by the particles , , , , (= although) or/and followed by (= nevertheless) in the main verb structure. :: :: Agesilaus, although he was aware of those things, nevertheless he continued to be steadfast in the truce.


=Attendant circumstances

= A participle may also express any other ''attendant circumstance'' under which an action takes place: :: :: Having taken the Boeotians with them, they marched against Pharsalus.


References

{{Ancient Greek grammar Greek grammar Ancient Greek