Para-fascism

Para-fascism refers to authoritarian conservative movements and regimes that adopt characteristics associated with fascism such as personality cults, paramilitary organizations, symbols and rhetoric, while diverging from conventional fascist tenets such as palingenetic ultranationalism, modernism, and populism. Para-fascism often emerges in response to the need for a facade of popular support in an age of mass politics, without a genuine commitment to revolutionary nationalism, instead focusing on maintaining tradition, religion, and culture. Para-fascist regimes may co-opt or neutralize genuine fascist movements. The historian Roger Griffin defines the following regimes and movements as para-fascist: Austrofascism in the Federal State of Austria led by Engelbert Dollfuss and Kurt Schuschnigg, Metaxism in the Greek '4th of August Regime', the " New State" of António de Oliveira Salazar's Portugal, the '' Bando nacional'' and the FET y de las JONS led by Francisco Franco in the Spanish State, Kingdom of Hungary led by Miklós Horthy, and the ''Révolution nationale'' in Vichy France led by Philippe Petain; the dictatorship of Ion Antonescu in the Kingdom of Romania has also been referred to as para-fascist. While most historians of fascism agree that these regimes were not totally fascist, many authors do acknowledge that they have some kind of connection with fascism, either by being partially influenced by it or by co-opting some genuine fascist groups. The words used by different historians to characterize these conservative regimes include, apart from parafascism: semi-fascist, fascistic, fascistized, quasi-fascist, and others.

By country

Austria

The Fatherland Front was an Austrian right-wing conservative, nationalist, and corporatist political organization founded in 1933 by Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss. It aimed to unite Austrians across political and social divides, emphasizing Austrian nationalism and independence from Germany while protecting the Catholic religious identity. The Front absorbed various anti-Marxist groups, establishing an authoritarian and corporatist regime known as the Ständestaat. It banned and persecuted political opponents, including communists, social democrats, and Austrian Nazis. Dollfuss was assassinated by the Nazis in 1934, and he was succeeded by Kurt Schuschnigg. The Fatherland Front's role in Austrian history remains a subject of debate, with some viewing it as a form of "Austrofascism" responsible for the decline of liberal democracy, while others credit it for defending independence and opposing Nazism.

China

The Blue Shirts Society (BSS) was a Chinese ultranationalist faction within the Kuomintang (KMT) that was influenced by German Brownshirts and Italian Blackshirts, it is debatable whether this can be seen as a fascist organization in the pure sense: unlike the Nazism and Italian Fascism, which is imperialist, populist, and partly anti-conservative, the ultranationalism of the BSS was anti-imperialist, elitist, and ultra-conservative. Historians Paul Jackson and Cyprian Balmires, have classified the BSS as a ‘fascistic’ ultranationalist group rather than a ‘fascist’ group. As an extension of the Second Sino-Japanese War, KMT served in the Allies in World War II and was openly an anti-fascist, and the BSS aided the political activities of the KMT.

Chiang Kai-shek started the New Life Movement under Confucian ideals. It was a government-led civic campaign in the 1930s Republic of China to promote cultural reform and Neo-Confucian social morality and to ultimately unite China under a centralized ideology following the emergence of ideological challenges to the status quo. Frederic Wakeman suggested that the New Life Movement was "Confucian fascism", but Wakeman is ambivalent about whether the New Life Movement was in fact fascist. Jay Taylor, argue that Chiang's ideology does not espouse the general ideology of fascism despite his growing sympathies with fascist ideas in the 1930s. China later declared war on fascist countries, including Germany, Italy, and Japan, as part of the Declarations of war during World War II and Chiang became the most powerful "anti-fascist" leader in Asia. When it comes to categorizing fascist regimes, KMT and Chiang's regime is often not categorized as fascist.

France

Greece

Metaxism is an authoritarian nationalist ideology linked to Ioannis Metaxas in Greece. It aimed for the revitalization of the Greek nation and the establishment of a modern, culturally unified Greece. This ideology criticized liberalism, prioritizing the interests of the nation over individual concerns, and sought to mobilize the Greek populace as a disciplined collective in the pursuit of a "new Greece."

Metaxas proclaimed his 4th of August Regime (1936–1941) as the embodiment of a "Third Greek Civilization," aspiring to create a culturally refined Greek nation drawing from ancient Macedonian and Spartan militaristic societies, representing the "First Greek Civilization," as well as the Orthodox Christian values of the Byzantine Empire, seen as the "Second Greek Civilization." The regime maintained that authentic Greeks were both ethnically Greek and adherents of Orthodox Christianity, explicitly excluding Albanians, Slavs, and Turks in Greece from Greek citizenship.

While the Metaxas government and its official doctrines are sometimes labeled as fascist, scholarly consensus characterizes it as a traditional authoritarian-conservative administration akin to the regimes of Francisco Franco in Spain or António de Oliveira Salazar in Portugal.Lee, Stephen J. 2000.
European Dictatorships, 1918–1945
' Routledge; 2 ed. . The Metaxist government drew its authority from the conservative establishment, staunchly supporting traditional institutions like the Greek Orthodox Church and the Greek Monarchy. It leaned towards a reactionary stance and lacked the radical theoretical elements associated with ideologies like Italian Fascism and German Nazism. Notably, the regime did not espouse antisemitism, considering it to be "distasteful."

Hungary

Japan

After 1918, several rival proto-fascist and fascist movements developed in Japan, and these activities helped increase the military's influence on the Japanese government. Despite the failure of the February 26 incident, Japan's ultranationalist military forces became the driving force of the fascist movement, gradually playing a central role in national politics.丸山眞男「日本ファシズムの思想と運動」（丸山眞男著 『［新装版］ 現代政治の思想と行動』 未来社 2006年 所収 32ページ）

Empire of Japan, along with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, was the three major countries of the Axis powers. In the Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II, Japan committed war crimes on a large scale, including rape, slaughter, slavery, and biopsy, so compared to German war crimes, including the Holocaust, Japan is often referred to as "fascist" during this period. However, the system of the Empire of Japan is more para-fascist regimes like Dolfuss' Christian Social Austria, Salazar's Estado Novo in Portugal, and Vichy France, not genuine fascism like Germany and Italy.

From 1940 to 1945, Japan established a one-party system by the para-fascist Imperial Rule Assistance Association to efficiently carry out the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Pacific War; the Encyclopedia Britannica defined the military dictatorship led by Hideki Tojo (1941–1944) as ''fascist'' regime.

Portugal

The National Union was the exclusive legal party of Portugal's '' Estado Novo'' regime, established in 1930 under the influence of António de Oliveira Salazar.

Unlike most of the one-party states during its time, it operated more as a political extension of the government rather than holding direct authority. Its membership primarily consisted of local elites like landowners, professionals, businessmen, and individuals with Catholic, monarchist, or conservative republican affiliations.

The National Union did not actively engage in militant activities. Under Salazar's leadership, it became the sole legally permitted party, but he emphasized that it should not function as a conventional political party. Instead, it served as a platform for conservatism rather than a revolutionary force.

The party's ideology centered around corporatism, drawing inspiration from Catholic encyclicals and Mussolini's corporate state. Unlike other ruling Fascist parties, it played a more limited role in governance, primarily focused on controlling and managing public opinion rather than mobilizing it.

Scholarly opinions vary on whether the ''Estado Novo'' and the National Union should be classified as fascist or not, with Salazar himself highlighting significant differences between fascism and the Catholic corporatism of the ''Estado Novo''. Some scholars lean towards categorizing it as a conservative authoritarian regime, while others argue for its classification as fascist.

Romania

Spain

The regime of Franco in Spain has been described either as fascist or as an authoritarian conservative military dictatorship; throughout the ongoing debates, some historians offered middle positions which still underlined the fascist traits of Francoism: Roger Griffin, for example, defined it as para-fascism; Ismael Saz defined it as , a regime which underwent a period unfinished period of rapid fascization, and afterwards, of unfinished de-fascization after World War II; the regime has been described as 'the most fascist of all non-fascist regimes and the least fascist of all the fascist regimes'. While While Enrique Moradiellos contends that "it is now increasingly rare to define Francoism as a truly fascist and totalitarian regime", although he writes that the debates on Francoism haven't finished yet, Saz notes that "it has also begun to be recognised that" Francoism underwent a "totalitarian or quasi-totalitarian, fascist or quasi-fascist" phase. The definition of Francoism as a fascist regime is defended by Paul Preston: according to him, it was a specific kind of fascism lacking Fascist "style and ideology", but serving the fascist "social and economic function".

The Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional Sindicalista, commonly known as FET y de las JONS or simply "FET," was the exclusive legal political party of the Francoist regime in Spain. Established by General Francisco Franco in 1937, it was a fusion of the fascist Falange Española de las JONS (FE de las JONS) with the monarchist neo-absolutist and integralist Catholic Traditionalist Communion associated with the Carlist movement. Despite the amalgamation, FET largely retained the platform of FE de las JONS, preserving 26 out of its original 27 points, as well as a similar internal structure.Cyprian P. Blamires (editor). ''World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2006. pp. 219–220. This party remained in effect until April 1977, after which it was rebranded as the Movimiento Nacional in 1958 which caused it to transform into an Authoritarian Conservative movement.Martin Blinkhorn.
Fascists and Conservatives: The Radical Right and the Establishment in Twentieth-Century Europe
'. Reprinted edition. Oxon, England: Routledge, 1990, 2001. p. 10 Some academics considered the pre-merge FE de las JONS to be fascist and that the merger with the Traditionalist Communion caused it to lose its fascist characteristics and thus become para-fascist.

See also

* Crypto-fascism
* Far-right politics
* Neo-fascism
* Post-fascism
* Ultraconservatism

References

Bibliography

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Further reading

* El-Ojeili, Chamsy. "Reflecting on post-fascism: Utopia and fear." ''Critical sociology'' 45.7-8 (2019): 1149–1166.
* Griffin, Roger, and Rita Almeida de Carvalho. "Editorial Introduction: Architectural Projections of a ‘New Order’ in Fascist and Para-Fascist Interwar Dictatorships." ''Fascism'' 7.2 (2018): 133-140
online
* Kallis, Aristotle A. "Fascism', 'Para-Fascism' and 'Fascistization': On the Similarities of Three Conceptual Categories''." European History Quarterly'' 33.2 (2003): 219-249
online
* Kallis, Aristotle. "Working Across Bounded Entities: Fascism,‘Para-Fascism’, and Ideational Mobilities in Interwar Europe." in ''Beyond the Fascist Century: Essays in Honour of Roger Griffin'' (2020): 73-99
online
* Newman, John Paul. "War Veterans, Fascism, and Para-Fascist Departures in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, 1918–1941." ''Fascism'' 6.1 (2017): 42-74
online
* Pinto, António Costa, and Aristotle Kallis, eds. ''Rethinking fascism and dictatorship in Europe'' (Springer, 2014
online
* Tamás, Gáspár Miklós. "On post-fascism." ''East European Constitutional Review'' 9 (2000): 48
online

* Trajano Filho, Francisco Sales. "The Many Faces of a Para-Fascist Culture: Architecture, Politics and Power in Vargas’ Regime (1930–1945)." ''Fascism'' 7.2 (2018): 175–212
online

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