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The Papanicolaou test (abbreviated as Pap test, also known as Pap smear (AE), cervical smear (BE), cervical screening (BE), or smear test (BE)) is a method of cervical screening used to detect potentially precancerous and
cancer Cancer is a group of diseases involving Cell growth#Disorders, abnormal cell growth with the potential to Invasion (cancer), invade or Metastasis, spread to other parts of the body. These contrast with benign tumors, which do not spread. Po ...
ous processes in the
cervix The cervix (: cervices) or cervix uteri is a dynamic fibromuscular sexual organ of the female reproductive system that connects the vagina with the uterine cavity. The human female cervix has been documented anatomically since at least the time ...
(opening of the
uterus The uterus (from Latin ''uterus'', : uteri or uteruses) or womb () is the hollow organ, organ in the reproductive system of most female mammals, including humans, that accommodates the embryonic development, embryonic and prenatal development, f ...
or womb) or, more rarely, anus (in both men and women). Abnormal findings are often followed up by more sensitive diagnostic procedures and, if warranted, interventions that aim to prevent progression to cervical cancer. The test was independently invented in the 1920s by the Greek physician Georgios Papanikolaou and named after him. A simplified version of the test was introduced by the
Canadian Canadians () are people identified with the country of Canada. This connection may be residential, legal, historical or cultural. For most Canadians, many (or all) of these connections exist and are collectively the source of their being ''C ...
obstetrician Anna Marion Hilliard in 1957. A Pap smear is performed by opening the
vagina In mammals and other animals, the vagina (: vaginas or vaginae) is the elastic, muscular sex organ, reproductive organ of the female genital tract. In humans, it extends from the vulval vestibule to the cervix (neck of the uterus). The #Vag ...
with a speculum and collecting cells at the outer opening of the cervix at the transformation zone (where the outer squamous cervical cells meet the inner glandular endocervical cells), using an Ayre spatula or a cytobrush. The collected cells are examined under a
microscope A microscope () is a laboratory equipment, laboratory instrument used to examine objects that are too small to be seen by the naked eye. Microscopy is the science of investigating small objects and structures using a microscope. Microscopic ...
to look for abnormalities. The test aims to detect potentially precancerous changes (called cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) or cervical dysplasia; the squamous intraepithelial lesion system (SIL) is also used to describe abnormalities) caused by
human papillomavirus Human papillomavirus infection (HPV infection) is caused by a DNA virus from the ''Papillomaviridae'' family. Many HPV infections cause no symptoms and 90% resolve spontaneously within two years. In some cases, an HPV infection persists and r ...
, a sexually transmitted DNA virus. The test remains an effective, widely used method for early detection of precancer and cervical cancer. While the test may also detect infections and abnormalities in the endocervix and
endometrium The endometrium is the inner epithelium, epithelial layer, along with its mucous membrane, of the mammalian uterus. It has a basal layer and a functional layer: the basal layer contains stem cells which regenerate the functional layer. The funct ...
, it is not designed to do so. Guidelines on when to begin Pap smear screening are varied, but usually begin in adulthood. Guidelines on frequency vary from every three to five years.American Cancer Society. (2010)
Detailed Guide: Cervical Cancer. Can cervical cancer be prevented?
Retrieved August 8, 2011.
If results are abnormal, and depending on the nature of the abnormality, the test may need to be repeated in six to twelve months. If the abnormality requires closer scrutiny, the patient may be referred for detailed inspection of the cervix by colposcopy, which magnifies the view of the cervix, vagina and vulva surfaces. The person may also be referred for HPV DNA testing, which can serve as an adjunct to Pap testing. In some countries, viral DNA is checked for first, before checking for abnormal cells. Additional biomarkers that may be applied as ancillary tests with the Pap test are evolving.


Medical uses

Screening guidelines vary from country to country. In general, screening starts about the age of 20 or 25 and continues until about the age of 50 or 60. Screening is typically recommended every three to five years, as long as results are normal. American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) and others recommend starting screening at age 21. Many other countries wait until age 25 or later to start screening. For instance, some parts of Great Britain start screening at age 25. ACOG's general recommendation is that people with female reproductive organs age 30–65 have an annual well-woman examination, that they not get annual Pap tests, and that they do get Pap tests at three to five year intervals., which cites * * * * HPV is passed through skin to skin contact; sex does not have to occur, although it is a common way for it to spread. It takes an average of a year, but can take up to four years, for a person's immune system to clear the initial infection. Screening during this period may show this immune reaction and repair as mild abnormalities, which are usually not associated with cervical cancer, but could cause the patient stress and result in further tests and possible treatment. Cervical cancer usually takes time to develop, so delaying the start of screening a few years poses little risk of missing a potentially precancerous lesion. For instance, screening people under age 25 does not decrease cancer rates under age 30. HPV can be transmitted in sex between females, so those who have only had sex with other females should be screened, although they are at somewhat lower risk for cervical cancer. Guidelines on frequency of screening vary—typically every three to five years for those who have not had previous abnormal smears. Some older recommendations suggested screening as frequently as every one to two years, however there is little evidence to support such frequent screening; annual screening has little benefit but leads to greatly increased cost and many unnecessary procedures and treatments. It has been acknowledged since before 1980 that most people can be screened less often. In some guidelines, frequency depends on age; for instance in Great Britain, screening is recommended every three years for women under 50, and every five years for those over. Screening should stop at about age 65 unless there is a history of abnormal test result or disease. There is probably no benefit in screening people aged 60 or over whose previous tests have been negative. If a woman's last three Pap results were normal, she can discontinue testing at age 65, according to the USPSTF, ACOG, ACS, and ASCP; England's NHS says 64. There is no need to continue screening after a complete hysterectomy for benign disease. Pap smear screening is still recommended for those who have been vaccinated against HPV since the vaccines do not cover all HPV types that can cause cervical cancer. Also, the vaccine does not protect against HPV exposure before vaccination. Those with a history of endometrial cancer should discontinue routine Pap tests after hysterectomy. Further tests are unlikely to detect recurrence of cancer but do bring the risk of giving false positive results, which would lead to unnecessary further testing. More frequent Pap smears may be needed to follow up after an abnormal Pap smear, after treatment for abnormal Pap or biopsy results, or after treatment of cancer (cervical, anal, etc.).


Effectiveness

The Pap test, when combined with a regular program of screening and appropriate follow-up, can reduce cervical cancer deaths by up to 80%. Failure of prevention of cancer by the Pap test can occur for many reasons, including not getting regular screening, lack of appropriate follow-up of abnormal results, and sampling and interpretation errors. In the US, over half of all invasive cancers occur in females who have never had a Pap smear; an additional 10 to 20% of cancers occur in those who have not had a Pap smear in the preceding five years. About one-quarter of US cervical cancers were in people who had an abnormal Pap smear but did not get appropriate follow-up (patient did not return for care, or clinician did not perform recommended tests or treatment). Adenocarcinoma of the cervix has not been shown to be prevented by Pap smears. In the UK, which has a Pap smear screening program, adenocarcinoma accounts for about 15% of all cervical cancers. Estimates of the effectiveness of the United Kingdom's call and recall system vary widely, but it may prevent about 700 deaths per year in the UK. Multiple studies have performed sensitivity and specificity analyses on Pap smears. Sensitivity analysis captures the ability of Pap smears to correctly identify women with cervical cancer. Various studies have revealed the sensitivity of Pap smears to be between 47.19 - 55.5%. Specificity analysis captures the ability of Pap smears to correctly identify women without cervical cancer. Various studies have revealed the specificity of Pap smears to be between 64.79 - 96.8%. While Pap smears may not be entirely accurate, they remain one of the most effective cervical cancer prevention tools. Pap smears may be supplemented with HPV DNA testing.


Results

In screening a general or low-risk population, most Pap results are normal. In the United States, about 2–3 million abnormal Pap smear results are found each year. Most abnormal results are mildly abnormal ( ASC-US (typically 2–5% of Pap results) or low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion ( LSIL) (about 2% of results)), indicating HPV infection. Although most low-grade cervical dysplasias spontaneously regress without ever leading to cervical cancer, dysplasia can serve as an indication that increased vigilance is needed. In a typical scenario, about 0.5% of Pap results are high-grade SIL ( HSIL), and less than 0.5% of results indicate cancer; 0.2 to 0.8% of results indicate Atypical Glandular Cells of Undetermined Significance (AGC-NOS). As liquid-based preparations (LBPs) become a common medium for testing, atypical result rates have increased. The median rate for all preparations with low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions using LBPs was 2.9% in 2006, compared with a 2003 median rate of 2.1%. Rates for high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (median, 0.5%) and atypical squamous cells have changed little. Abnormal results are reported according to the Bethesda system. They include: * Atypical squamous cells (ASC) ** Atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance (ASC-US) ** Atypical squamous cells – cannot exclude HSIL (ASC-H) * Squamous intraepithelial lesion (SIL) ** Low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (LGSIL or LSIL) ** High-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (HGSIL or HSIL) * Squamous cell carcinoma * Glandular epithelial cell abnormalities ** Atypical glandular cells not otherwise specified (AGC or AGC-NOS) Endocervical and endometrial abnormalities can also be detected, as can a number of infectious processes, including
yeast Yeasts are eukaryotic, single-celled microorganisms classified as members of the fungus kingdom (biology), kingdom. The first yeast originated hundreds of millions of years ago, and at least 1,500 species are currently recognized. They are est ...
,
herpes simplex virus Herpes simplex virus 1 and 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2) are two members of the Herpesviridae#Human herpesvirus types, human ''Herpesviridae'' family, a set of viruses that produce Viral disease, viral infections in the majority of humans. Both HSV-1 a ...
and
trichomoniasis Trichomoniasis (trich) is an infectious disease caused by the parasite ''Trichomonas vaginalis''. About 70% of affected people do not have symptoms when infected. When symptoms occur, they typically begin 5 to 28 days after exposure. Symptoms ca ...
. However it is not very sensitive at detecting these infections, so absence of detection on a Pap does not mean absence of the infection. Image:Normal PAP (Cervical) Smear.jpg,
Micrograph A micrograph is an image, captured photographically or digitally, taken through a microscope or similar device to show a magnify, magnified image of an object. This is opposed to a macrograph or photomacrograph, an image which is also taken ...
of a normal pap smear Image:Low-grade sil and endocx.jpg,
Micrograph A micrograph is an image, captured photographically or digitally, taken through a microscope or similar device to show a magnify, magnified image of an object. This is opposed to a macrograph or photomacrograph, an image which is also taken ...
of a Pap test showing a low-grade intraepithelial lesion (LSIL) and benign endocervical mucosa. Pap stain. Image:Trichomonas pap test.jpg,
Micrograph A micrograph is an image, captured photographically or digitally, taken through a microscope or similar device to show a magnify, magnified image of an object. This is opposed to a macrograph or photomacrograph, an image which is also taken ...
of a Pap test showing
trichomoniasis Trichomoniasis (trich) is an infectious disease caused by the parasite ''Trichomonas vaginalis''. About 70% of affected people do not have symptoms when infected. When symptoms occur, they typically begin 5 to 28 days after exposure. Symptoms ca ...
. Trichomonas organism seen in the upper right. Pap stain. Image:Herpes simplex virus pap test.jpg,
Micrograph A micrograph is an image, captured photographically or digitally, taken through a microscope or similar device to show a magnify, magnified image of an object. This is opposed to a macrograph or photomacrograph, an image which is also taken ...
of a Pap test showing changes of
herpes simplex virus Herpes simplex virus 1 and 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2) are two members of the Herpesviridae#Human herpesvirus types, human ''Herpesviridae'' family, a set of viruses that produce Viral disease, viral infections in the majority of humans. Both HSV-1 a ...
. Pap stain. Image:Adenocarcinoma on pap test 1.jpg, Endocervical adenocarcinoma on a pap test. Image:Candida pap 1.jpg, Candida organisms on a pap test. Image:Herpes_simplex_virus_pap_test.jpg, Viral cytopathic effect consistent with
herpes simplex virus Herpes simplex virus 1 and 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2) are two members of the Herpesviridae#Human herpesvirus types, human ''Herpesviridae'' family, a set of viruses that produce Viral disease, viral infections in the majority of humans. Both HSV-1 a ...
on a pap test. Image:Pap test normal.jpg, Normal squamous epithelial cells in premenopausal women Image:Pap test atropy.JPG, Atrophic squamous cells in
postmenopausal Menopause, also known as the climacteric, is the time when menstrual periods permanently stop, marking the end of the reproductive stage for the female human. It typically occurs between the ages of 45 and 55, although the exact timing can ...
women Image:Pap test endocervical cells.JPG, Normal endocervical cells should be present into the slide, as a proof of a good quality sampling Image:Pap test citolysis.JPG, The cytoplasms of squamous epithelial cells melted out; many Döderlein bacilli can be seen. Image:Pap test trichomonas.JPG, Infestation by
Trichomonas vaginalis ''Trichomonas vaginalis'' is an Anaerobic organism, anaerobic, flagellated protozoan parasite and the causative agent of a Sexually transmitted infection, sexually transmitted disease called trichomoniasis. It is the most common pathogenic protoz ...
Image:Pap test abnormal.JPG, An obviously atypical cell can be seen


Pregnancy

Pap tests can usually be performed during pregnancy up to at least 24 weeks of gestational age.PapScreen Victoria > Pregnant women
from Cancer Council Victoria 2014
Pap tests during pregnancy have not been associated with increased risk of
miscarriage Miscarriage, also known in medical terms as a spontaneous abortion, is an end to pregnancy resulting in the loss and expulsion of an embryo or fetus from the womb before it can fetal viability, survive independently. Miscarriage before 6 weeks ...
. An inflammatory component is commonly seen on Pap smears from pregnant women and does not appear to be a risk for subsequent
preterm birth Preterm birth, also known as premature birth, is the Childbirth, birth of a baby at fewer than 37 weeks Gestational age (obstetrics), gestational age, as opposed to full-term delivery at approximately 40 weeks. Extreme preterm is less than 28 ...
. After childbirth, it is recommended to wait 12 weeks before taking a Pap test because inflammation of the cervix caused by the birth interferes with test interpretation.


In transgender individuals

Transgender men are also typically at risk for HPV due to retention of the uterine cervix in the majority of individuals in this subgroup. As such, professional guidelines recommend that transgender men be screened routinely for cervical cancer using methods such as Pap smear, identical to the recommendations for cisgender women. However, transgender men have lower rates of cervical cancer screening than cisgender women. Many transgender men report barriers to receiving gender-affirming healthcare, including lack of insurance coverage and stigma/discrimination during clinical encounters, and may encounter provider misconceptions regarding risk in this population for cervical cancer. Pap smears may be presented to patients as non-gendered screening procedures for cancer rather than one specific for examination of the female reproductive organs. Pap smears may trigger gender dysphoria in patients and gender-neutral language can be used when explaining the pathogenesis of cancer due to infection, emphasizing the pervasiveness of HPV infection regardless of gender. Transgender women who have not had vaginoplasties are not at risk of developing cervical cancer because they do not have cervices. Transgender women who have had vaginoplasties and have a neo-cervix or neo-vagina have a small chance of developing cancer, according to the Canadian Cancer Society. Surgeons typically use penile skin to create the new vagina and cervix, which can contract HPV and lead to
penile cancer Penile cancer, or penile carcinoma, is a cancer that develops in the skin or tissues of the penis. Symptoms may include abnormal growth, an ulcer or sore on the skin of the penis, and bleeding or foul smelling discharge. Risk factors include phimo ...
, although it is considerably rarer than cervical cancer. Because the risk of this kind of cancer is so low, cervical cancer screening is not routinely offered for those with a neo-cervix.


Procedure

According to the CDC, intercourse, douching, and the use of vaginal medicines or spermicidal foam should be avoided for 2 days before the test. A number of studies have shown that using a small amount of water-based gel lubricant does not interfere with, obscure, or distort the Pap smear. Further, cytology is not affected, nor are some STD testing. The CDC states that Pap smears can be performed during
menstruation Menstruation (also known as a period, among other colloquial terms) is the regular discharge of blood and Mucous membrane, mucosal tissue from the endometrium, inner lining of the uterus through the vagina. The menstrual cycle is characterized ...
. However, the NHS recommends against cervical screening during, or in the 2 days before and after, menstruation. Pap smears can be performed during menstruation, especially if the physician is using a liquid-based test; however if bleeding is extremely heavy, endometrial cells can obscure cervical cells, and if this occurs the test may need to be repeated in 6 months. Pap smears begin with the insertion of a speculum into the vagina, which spreads the vagina open and allows access to the
cervix The cervix (: cervices) or cervix uteri is a dynamic fibromuscular sexual organ of the female reproductive system that connects the vagina with the uterine cavity. The human female cervix has been documented anatomically since at least the time ...
. The health care provider then collects a sample of cells from the outer opening or external os of the cervix by scraping it with either a spatula or brush. Obtaining a Pap smear should not cause much pain, but may be uncomfortable. Conditions such as vaginismus, vulvodynia, or cervical stenosis can cause insertion of the speculum to be painful. In a conventional Pap smear, the cells are placed on a glass slide and taken to the
laboratory A laboratory (; ; colloquially lab) is a facility that provides controlled conditions in which scientific or technological research, experiments, and measurement may be performed. Laboratories are found in a variety of settings such as schools ...
to be checked for abnormalities. A plastic-fronded broom is sometimes used in place of the spatula or brush. The broom is not as good a collection device, since it is much less effective at collecting endocervical material than the spatula and brush. The broom is used more frequently with the advent of liquid-based cytology, although either type of collection device may be used with either type of cytology. The sample is stained using the Papanicolaou technique, in which tinctorial dyes and acids are selectively retained by cells. Unstained cells cannot be seen adequately with a light microscope. Papanicolaou chose stains that highlighted cytoplasmic keratinization, which actually has almost nothing to do with the nuclear features used to make diagnoses now. A single smear has an area of 25 x 50 mm and contains a few hundred thousand cells on average. Screening with light microscopy is first done on low (10x) power and then switched to higher (40x) power upon viewing suspicious findings. Cells are analyzed under high power for morphologic changes indicative of malignancy (including enlarged and irregularly shaped nucleus, an increase in nucleus to cytoplasm ratio, and more coarse and irregular chromatin). Approximately 1,000 fields of view are required on 10x power for screening of a single sample, which takes on average 5 to 10 minutes. In some cases, a computer system may prescreen the slides, indicating those that do not need examination by a person or highlighting areas for special attention. The sample is then usually screened by a specially trained and qualified cytotechnologist using a light
microscope A microscope () is a laboratory equipment, laboratory instrument used to examine objects that are too small to be seen by the naked eye. Microscopy is the science of investigating small objects and structures using a microscope. Microscopic ...
. The terminology for who screens the sample varies according to the country; in the UK, the personnel are known as cytoscreeners, biomedical scientists (BMS), advanced practitioners and pathologists. The latter two take responsibility for reporting the abnormal sample, which may require further investigation.


Automated analysis

Since the early 2000s, there have been successful attempts to develop automated, computer image analysis systems for screening. Although, on the available evidence, automated cervical screening could not be recommended for implementation into a national screening program, an NHS Health technology appraisal in 2005 concluded that the "general case for automated image analysis ha(d) probably been made". Automation may improve sensitivity and reduce unsatisfactory specimens. Two systems have been approved by the FDA and function in high-volume reference laboratories, with human oversight.


Types of screening

* Conventional Pap—In a conventional Pap smear, samples are smeared directly onto a microscope slide after collection. * Liquid-based cytology—The sample of (epithelial) cells is taken from the transitional zone, the squamocolumnar junction of the cervix, between the ectocervix and the endocervix. The cells taken are suspended in a bottle of preservative for transport to the laboratory, where they are analyzed using Pap stains. Pap tests commonly examine epithelial abnormalities, such as metaplasia, dysplasia, or borderline changes, all of which may be indicative of CIN. Nuclei will stain dark blue, squamous cells will stain green and keratinised cells will stain pink/ orange. Koilocytes may be observed where there is some dyskaryosis (of epithelium). The nucleus in koilocytes is typically irregular, indicating possible cause for concern; requiring further confirmatory screens and tests. In addition, human papillomavirus (HPV) test may be performed either as indicated for abnormal Pap results, or in some cases, dual testing is done, where both a Pap smear and an HPV test are done at the same time (also called Pap co-testing).


Practical aspects

The endocervix may be partially sampled with the device used to obtain the ectocervical sample, but due to the anatomy of this area, consistent and reliable sampling cannot be guaranteed. Since abnormal endocervical cells may be sampled, those examining them are taught to recognize them. The endometrium is not directly sampled with the device used to sample the ectocervix. Cells may exfoliate onto the cervix and be collected from there, so as with endocervical cells, abnormal cells can be recognised if present but the Pap test should not be used as a screening tool for endometrial malignancy. In the United States, a Pap test itself costs $20 to $30, but the costs for Pap test visits can cost over $1,000, largely because additional tests are added that may or may not be necessary.


History

The test was invented by and named after the Greek doctor Georgios Papanikolaou, who started his research in 1923. Aurel Babeș independently made similar discoveries in 1927. However, Babeș' method was radically different from Papanikolaou's. The Pap test was finally recognized only after a leading article in the '' American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology'' in 1941 by Papanikolaou and Herbert F. Traut, an American gynecologist. A monograph titled ''Diagnosis of Uterine Cancer by the Vaginal Smear'' that they published contained drawings of the various cells seen in patients with no disease, inflammatory conditions, and preclinical and clinical carcinoma. The monograph was illustrated by Hashime Murayama, who later became a staff illustrator with the
National Geographic Society The National Geographic Society, headquartered in Washington, D.C., United States, is one of the largest nonprofit scientific and educational organizations in the world. Founded in 1888, its interests include geography, archaeology, natural sc ...
. Both Papanikolaou and his wife, Andromachi Papanikolaou, dedicated the rest of their lives to teaching the technique to other physicians and laboratory personnel.


Experimental techniques

In the developed world, cervical biopsy guided by colposcopy is considered the "
gold standard A gold standard is a backed currency, monetary system in which the standard economics, economic unit of account is based on a fixed quantity of gold. The gold standard was the basis for the international monetary system from the 1870s to the ...
" for diagnosing cervical abnormalities after an abnormal Pap smear. Other techniques such as triple smear are also done after an abnormal Pap smear. The procedure requires a trained colposcopist and can be expensive to perform. However, Pap smears are very sensitive and some negative biopsy results may represent undersampling of the lesion in the biopsy, so negative biopsy with positive cytology requires careful follow-up. Experimental visualization techniques use broad-band light (e.g., direct visualization, speculoscopy, cervicography, visual inspection with acetic acid or with Lugol's, and colposcopy) and electronic detection methods (e.g., Polarprobe and ''in vivo''
spectroscopy Spectroscopy is the field of study that measures and interprets electromagnetic spectra. In narrower contexts, spectroscopy is the precise study of color as generalized from visible light to all bands of the electromagnetic spectrum. Spectro ...
). These techniques are less expensive and can be performed with significantly less training. They do not perform as well as Pap smear screening and colposcopy. At this point, these techniques have not been validated by large-scale trials and are not in general use.


Implementation by country


Australia

Australia has used the Pap test as part of its cervical screening program since its implementation in 1991 which required women past the age of 18 be tested every two years. In December 2017 Australia discontinued its use of the Pap test and replaced it with a new HPV test that is only required to be conducted once every five years from the age of 25. Medicare covers the costs of testing; however, if a patient's doctor does not allow bulk billing, they may have to pay for the appointment and then claim the Medicare rebate.


Taiwan

Free Pap tests were offered from 1974–1984 before being replaced by a system in which all women over the age of 30 could have the cost of their Pap test reimbursed by the National Health Insurance in 1995. This policy was still ongoing in 2018 and encouraged women to screen at least every three years. Despite this, the number of people receiving Pap tests remain lower than countries like Australia. Some believe this is due to a lack of awareness regarding the test and its availability. It has also been found that women who have chronic diseases or other reproductive diseases are less likely to receive the test.


England

the NHS maintains a cervical screening program in which women between the age of 25–49 are invited for a smear test every three years, and women past 50 every five years. Much like Australia, England uses a HPV test before examining cells that test positive using the Pap test. The test is free as part of the national cervical screening program.


Coccoid bacteria

The finding of coccoid bacteria on a Pap test is of no consequence with otherwise normal test findings and no infectious symptoms. However, if there is enough inflammation to obscure the detection of precancerous and cancerous processes, it may indicate treatment with a broad-spectrum antibiotic for streptococci and anaerobic bacteria (such as
metronidazole Metronidazole, sold under the brand name Flagyl and Metrogyl among others, is an antibiotic and antiprotozoal medication. It is used either alone or with other antibiotics to treat pelvic inflammatory disease, endocarditis, and bacterial vagino ...
and amoxicillin) before repeating the smear. Alternatively, the test will be repeated at an earlier time than it would otherwise.OB-GYN 101: Introductory Obstetrics & Gynecology > Coccoid Bacteria
by Michael Hughey Hughey at Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center. Retrieved Feb 2014.
If there are symptoms of vaginal discharge, bad odor or irritation, the presence of coccoid bacteria also may indicate treatment with antibiotics as per above.


References

;Notes


External links


The Pap Test: Questions and Answers
nbsp;— from the U.S.'s
National Cancer Institute The National Cancer Institute (NCI) coordinates the United States National Cancer Program and is part of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), which is one of eleven agencies that are part of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. ...

MedlinePlus: Cervical Cancer Prevention/Screening
nbsp;— from
MedlinePlus MedlinePlus is an online information service produced by the United States National Library of Medicine. The service provides curated consumer health information in English and Spanish with select content in additional languages. The site brings ...

NHS Cervical Screening Programme
nbsp;— from the UK's
National Health Service The National Health Service (NHS) is the term for the publicly funded health care, publicly funded healthcare systems of the United Kingdom: the National Health Service (England), NHS Scotland, NHS Wales, and Health and Social Care (Northern ...

Cervical cancer screening information
nbsp;– from
Cancer Research UK Cancer Research UK (CRUK) is the world's largest independent cancer research organisation. It is registered as a charity in the United Kingdom and Isle of Man, and was formed on 4 February 2002 by the merger of The Cancer Research Campaign and t ...

Pap Smear
nbsp;– from Lab Tests Online
Pap Smear
nbsp;— from eMedicineHealth
PapScreen
nbsp;– Australian information about Pap tests (or Pap smears)
Canadian Guidelines for Cervical Cancer Screening
nbsp;– Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada {{DEFAULTSORT:Pap Test Cytopathology Diagnostic obstetrics and gynaecology Greek inventions Cervical cancer Infectious causes of cancer Medical tests Papillomavirus-associated diseases