American ginseng (''Panax quinquefolius'') is a
species
A species () is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate sexes or mating types can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. It is the basic unit of Taxonomy (biology), ...
of
flowering plant
Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (). The term angiosperm is derived from the Ancient Greek, Greek words (; 'container, vessel') and (; 'seed'), meaning that the seeds are enclosed with ...
in the ivy
family
Family (from ) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). It forms the basis for social order. Ideally, families offer predictabili ...
Araliaceae
The Araliaceae are a family of flowering plants composed of about 43 genera and around 1500 species consisting of primarily woody plants and some herbaceous plants commonly called the ginseng family. The morphology of Araliaceae varies widely ...
. It is native to eastern
North America
North America is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere, Northern and Western Hemisphere, Western hemispheres. North America is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South Ameri ...
and has been introduced into
China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
. The
specific epithet
In Taxonomy (biology), taxonomy, binomial nomenclature ("two-term naming system"), also called binary nomenclature, is a formal system of naming species of living things by giving each a name composed of two parts, both of which use Latin gramm ...
''quinquefolius'' means "five-leaved", which refers to the typical number of leaflets per leaf. It is one of a group of
taxa
In biology, a taxon (back-formation from ''taxonomy''; : taxa) is a group of one or more populations of an organism or organisms seen by taxonomists to form a unit. Although neither is required, a taxon is usually known by a particular name and ...
known as "
ginseng
Ginseng () is the root of plants in the genus ''Panax'', such as South China ginseng (''Panax notoginseng, P. notoginseng''), Korean ginseng (''Panax ginseng, P. ginseng''), and American ginseng (''American ginseng, P. quinquefol ...
".
Europeans first became aware of American ginseng near
Montreal
Montreal is the List of towns in Quebec, largest city in the Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Quebec, the List of the largest municipalities in Canada by population, second-largest in Canada, and the List of North American cit ...
in 1716. It has been wild-harvested and exported to
Asia
Asia ( , ) is the largest continent in the world by both land area and population. It covers an area of more than 44 million square kilometres, about 30% of Earth's total land area and 8% of Earth's total surface area. The continent, which ...
since 1720. Billions of plants were wild-harvested in the 19th century alone. To control international trade and prevent global extinction of the species, the
United States Fish and Wildlife Service
The United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS or FWS) is a List of federal agencies in the United States, U.S. federal government agency within the United States Department of the Interior which oversees the management of fish, wildlife, ...
implements a
CITES
CITES (shorter acronym for the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, also known as the Washington Convention) is a multilateral treaty to protect endangered plants and animals from the threats of inte ...
Export Program that authorizes 19 states and one tribe to export American ginseng from the United States. From 1978 to 2019, the bulk of exports have come from southern
Appalachia
Appalachia ( ) is a geographic region located in the Appalachian Mountains#Regions, central and southern sections of the Appalachian Mountains in the east of North America. In the north, its boundaries stretch from the western Catskill Mountai ...
n states, especially
Kentucky
Kentucky (, ), officially the Commonwealth of Kentucky, is a landlocked U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern region of the United States. It borders Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio to the north, West Virginia to the ...
,
West Virginia
West Virginia is a mountainous U.S. state, state in the Southern United States, Southern and Mid-Atlantic (United States), Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States.The United States Census Bureau, Census Bureau and the Association of American ...
, and
Tennessee
Tennessee (, ), officially the State of Tennessee, is a landlocked U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern region of the United States. It borders Kentucky to the north, Virginia to the northeast, North Carolina t ...
.
The
conservation status
The conservation status of a group of organisms (for instance, a species) indicates whether the group still exists and how likely the group is to become extinct in the near future. Many factors are taken into account when assessing conservation ...
of American ginseng is globally vulnerable. It is imperiled or critically imperiled in 14 states and provinces. In
Canada
Canada is a country in North America. Its Provinces and territories of Canada, ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, making it the world's List of coun ...
, the species is endangered and facing imminent extinction.
As wild populations declined in the late 19th century, American ginseng became a domesticated crop. It is cultivated primarily in
Ontario
Ontario is the southernmost Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Canada. Located in Central Canada, Ontario is the Population of Canada by province and territory, country's most populous province. As of the 2021 Canadian census, it ...
,
Wisconsin
Wisconsin ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Great Lakes region, Great Lakes region of the Upper Midwest of the United States. It borders Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake Michigan to the east, Michig ...
,
British Columbia
British Columbia is the westernmost Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Canada. Situated in the Pacific Northwest between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains, the province has a diverse geography, with rugged landscapes that ...
, and China. Canada is the largest producer and exporter of cultivated American ginseng in the world. It is the state herb of Wisconsin.
Description
''Panax quinquefolius'' is a
herbaceous
Herbaceous plants are vascular plants that have no persistent woody stems above ground. This broad category of plants includes many perennials, and nearly all annuals and biennials.
Definitions of "herb" and "herbaceous"
The fourth edition of ...
perennial plant
In horticulture, the term perennial (''wikt:per-#Prefix, per-'' + ''wikt:-ennial#Suffix, -ennial'', "through the year") is used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annual plant, annuals and biennial plant, biennials. It has thus been d ...
. Its aromatic root resembles a small parsnip that forks as it matures. The plant grows tall, usually bearing three
compound leaves
A leaf (: leaves) is a principal appendage of the stem of a vascular plant, usually borne laterally above ground and specialized for photosynthesis. Leaves are collectively called foliage, as in "autumn foliage", while the leaves, stem, fl ...
(sometimes called "prongs"), each with three to five leaflets, long.
''Panax quinquefolius'' is sometimes confused with wild sarsaparilla (''
Aralia nudicaulis
''Aralia nudicaulis'' (commonly wild sarsaparilla,Dickinson, T.; Metsger, G.; Hull, J.; and Dickinson, R. (2004) The ROM Field Guide to Wildflowers of Ontario. Toronto:Royal Ontario Museum, p. 140. false sarsaparilla, shot bush, small spikenard, ...
''), another member of the ivy family (Araliaceae). The two species may be distinguished by their leaves. ''Panax quinquefolius'' has
palmately compound
A leaf (: leaves) is a principal appendage of the stem of a vascular plant, usually borne laterally above ground and specialized for photosynthesis. Leaves are collectively called foliage, as in "autumn foliage", while the leaves, stem, fl ...
leaves (with leaflets radiating from a single point) while ''Aralia nudicaulis'' has
pinnately compound leaves (with leaflets arranged on either side of a central stalk).
Phytochemistry
Like Asian ginseng (''
Panax ginseng
''Panax ginseng'', ginseng, also known as Asian ginseng, Chinese ginseng or Korean ginseng, is a species of plant whose root is the original source of ginseng. It is a perennial plant that grows in the mountains of East Asia. It is mainly cultiv ...
''), American ginseng contains
dammarane
Dammarane is a tetracyclic triterpene found in sapogenins (forming triterpenoid saponins) like those of ginseng (ginsenosides: panaxatriol
Panaxatriol is an organic compound that is an aglycone of ginsenosides, a group of steroid glycosides. I ...
-type
ginsenoside
Ginsenosides or panaxosides are a class of natural product steroid glycosides and triterpene saponins. Compounds in this family are found almost exclusively in the plant genus ''Panax'' (ginseng), which has a long history of use in traditional med ...
s, or
saponin
Saponins (Latin ''sapon'', 'soap' + ''-in'', 'one of') are bitter-tasting, usually toxic plant-derived secondary metabolites. They are organic chemicals that become foamy when agitated in water and have high molecular weight. They are present ...
s, as the major biologically active constituents. Dammarane-type ginsenosides include two classifications: 20(S)-
protopanaxadiol
Protopanaxadiol (PPD) is an organic compound that is an aglycone of ginsenosides, a group of steroid glycosides. It is a dammarane-type tetracyclic terpene sapogenin found in ginseng (''Panax ginseng'') and in notoginseng (''Panax pseudoginseng ...
(PPD) and 20(S)-
protopanaxatriol
Protopanaxatriol (PPT) is an organic compound that is an aglycone of ginsenosides, a group of steroid glycosides. It is a dammarane-type tetracyclic triterpene sapogenins found in ginseng (''Panax ginseng'') and in notoginseng (''Panax pseudogins ...
(PPT). American ginseng contains high levels of
Rb1 RB1 may refer to:
* Red Bull RB1, a Formula 1 car
* Retinoblastoma protein
Retinoblastoma (Rb) is a rare form of cancer that rapidly develops from the immature cells of a retina, the light-detecting tissue of the eye. It is the most common pr ...
, Rd (PPD classification), and Re (PPT classification) ginsenosides—higher than that of ''P. ginseng'' in one study.
When taken orally, PPD-type ginsenosides are mostly metabolized by intestinal bacteria (
anaerobes
An anaerobic organism or anaerobe is any organism that does not require molecular oxygen for growth. It may react negatively or even die if free oxygen is present. In contrast, an aerobic organism (aerobe) is an organism that requires an oxygenat ...
) to PPD monoglucoside, 20-O-beta-D-glucopyranosyl-20(S)-protopanaxadiol (M1).
In humans, M1 is detected in plasma starting seven hours after intake of PPD-type ginsenosides and in urine starting 12 hours after intake. These findings indicate M1 is the final metabolite of PPD-type ginsenosides.
M1 is referred to in some articles as IH-901,
and in others as compound-K.
Taxonomy
''Panax quinquefolius'' was described as ''Aureliana canadensis'' by the French
ethnologist
Ethnology (from the , meaning 'nation') is an academic field and discipline that compares and analyzes the characteristics of different peoples and the relationships between them (compare cultural, social, or sociocultural anthropology).
Scien ...
and
naturalist
Natural history is a domain of inquiry involving organisms, including animals, fungi, and plants, in their natural environment, leaning more towards observational than experimental methods of study. A person who studies natural history is cal ...
Joseph-François Lafitau
Joseph-François Lafitau (; May 31, 1681 – July 3, 1746) was a French Jesuit missionary, ethnologist, and naturalist who worked in Canada. He is best known for his use of the comparative method in the field of scientific anthropology, the disco ...
in 1718. As a
Jesuit
The Society of Jesus (; abbreviation: S.J. or SJ), also known as the Jesuit Order or the Jesuits ( ; ), is a religious order (Catholic), religious order of clerics regular of pontifical right for men in the Catholic Church headquartered in Rom ...
missionary
A missionary is a member of a Religious denomination, religious group who is sent into an area in order to promote its faith or provide services to people, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development.Thoma ...
in
New France
New France (, ) was the territory colonized by Kingdom of France, France in North America, beginning with the exploration of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence by Jacques Cartier in 1534 and ending with the cession of New France to Kingdom of Great Br ...
, Lafitau discovered ginseng near
Montreal
Montreal is the List of towns in Quebec, largest city in the Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Quebec, the List of the largest municipalities in Canada by population, second-largest in Canada, and the List of North American cit ...
in 1716. In his search for a specimen, Father Lafitau enlisted the help of the
Iroquois
The Iroquois ( ), also known as the Five Nations, and later as the Six Nations from 1722 onwards; alternatively referred to by the Endonym and exonym, endonym Haudenosaunee ( ; ) are an Iroquoian languages, Iroquoian-speaking Confederation#Ind ...
by showing them a published botanical illustration of ''gin-seng'', a Chinese name for a plant now known as ''
Panax ginseng
''Panax ginseng'', ginseng, also known as Asian ginseng, Chinese ginseng or Korean ginseng, is a species of plant whose root is the original source of ginseng. It is a perennial plant that grows in the mountains of East Asia. It is mainly cultiv ...
''. The Iroquois referred to American ginseng as garent-oguen, which means "resembles man" or "a man's thigh" in
Iroquoian language
The Iroquoian languages () are a language family of indigenous peoples of North America. They are known for their general lack of labial consonants. The Iroquoian languages are polysynthetic and head-marking.
As of 2020, almost all surviving I ...
.
''Aureliana canadensis'' was further described by the English naturalist
Mark Catesby
Mark Catesby (24 March 1683 – 23 December 1749) was an English natural history, naturalist who studied the flora and fauna of the New World. Between 1729 and 1747, Catesby published his ''Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama ...
in 1747. Catesby published a striking color illustration of a live specimen transplanted from
Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania, officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a U.S. state, state spanning the Mid-Atlantic (United States), Mid-Atlantic, Northeastern United States, Northeastern, Appalachian, and Great Lakes region, Great Lakes regions o ...
to the garden of English botanist
Peter Collinson in
Peckham
Peckham ( ) is a district in south-east London, within the London Borough of Southwark. It is south-east of Charing Cross. At the 2001 Census the Peckham ward had a population of 14,720.
History
"Peckham" is a Saxon place name meaning the vi ...
. ''Aureliana canadensis'' is an
invalid name since it was published prior to 1 May 1753 (Art.13.1
ICN 2018).
The Swedish botanist
Carl Linnaeus
Carl Linnaeus (23 May 1707 – 10 January 1778), also known after ennoblement in 1761 as Carl von Linné,#Blunt, Blunt (2004), p. 171. was a Swedish biologist and physician who formalised binomial nomenclature, the modern system of naming o ...
validly described ''Panax quinquefolium'' in 1753, but the name was later corrected to ''Panax quinquefolius''. Linnaeus placed ''Aureliana canadensis'' in
synonymy
A synonym is a word, morpheme, or phrase that means precisely or nearly the same as another word, morpheme, or phrase in a given language. For example, in the English language, the words ''begin'', ''start'', ''commence'', and ''initiate'' are a ...
with ''Panax quinquefolius'', citing both Lafitau
718
__NOTOC__
Year 718 ( DCCXVIII) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar, the 718th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 718th year of the 1st millennium, the 18th year of the 8th century, and ...
and Catesby
747 747 may refer to:
* 747 (number), a composite number
* AD 747, a year of the Julian calendar
* 747 BC, a year in the 8th century BC
* Boeing 747, a large commercial plane
Arts and media
* 747s (band), an indie band
* ''747'' (album), by country m ...
Its
type specimen
In biology, a type is a particular wikt:en:specimen, specimen (or in some cases a group of specimens) of an organism to which the scientific name of that organism is formally associated. In other words, a type is an example that serves to ancho ...
, designated in 1991, was reportedly collected by
Pehr Kalm
Pehr Kalm (6 March 1716 – 16 November 1779), also known as Peter Kalm, was a Swedish-Finnish List of explorers, explorer, botany, botanist, natural history, naturalist, and Agricultural economics, agricultural economist. He was one of the most ...
near Quebec in 1749. The
specific epithet
In Taxonomy (biology), taxonomy, binomial nomenclature ("two-term naming system"), also called binary nomenclature, is a formal system of naming species of living things by giving each a name composed of two parts, both of which use Latin gramm ...
''quinquefolius'' means "five-leaved", which refers to the typical number of leaflets per leaf.
Etymology
The name
ginseng
Ginseng () is the root of plants in the genus ''Panax'', such as South China ginseng (''Panax notoginseng, P. notoginseng''), Korean ginseng (''Panax ginseng, P. ginseng''), and American ginseng (''American ginseng, P. quinquefol ...
derives from the Chinese herbalism term, ''jen-shen''. Other Chinese names are ''huaqishen'' () or ''xiyangshen'' ().
The genus name "Panax" is derived from the Greek 'Panakos' (panacea), in reference to the various benefits attributed to the herb.
The specific epithet "quinquefolius" means five-leaved, as described earlier.
Distribution and habitat
''Panax quinquefolius'' is native to the eastern United States and southeastern Canada. It is found primarily in the
Appalachian and
Ozark
The Ozarks, also known as the Ozark Mountains, Ozark Highlands or Ozark Plateau, is a physiographic region in the U.S. states of Missouri, Arkansas, and Oklahoma, as well as a small area in the southeastern corner of Kansas. The Ozarks cov ...
mountains of the United States where it prefers full shade environments in
deciduous
In the fields of horticulture and botany, the term deciduous () means "falling off at maturity" and "tending to fall off", in reference to trees and shrubs that seasonally shed Leaf, leaves, usually in the autumn; to the shedding of petals, aft ...
hardwood forests. It is introduced and cultivated in the following Chinese provinces:
Guizhou
)
, image_skyline =
, image_caption =
, image_map = Guizhou in China (+all claims hatched).svg
, mapsize = 275px
, map_alt = Map showing the location of Guizhou Province
, map_caption = Map s ...
,
Heilongjiang
Heilongjiang is a province in northeast China. It is the northernmost and easternmost province of the country and contains China's northernmost point (in Mohe City along the Amur) and easternmost point (at the confluence of the Amur and Us ...
,
Jiangsu
Jiangsu is a coastal Provinces of the People's Republic of China, province in East China. It is one of the leading provinces in finance, education, technology, and tourism, with its capital in Nanjing. Jiangsu is the List of Chinese administra ...
,
Jiangxi
; Gan: )
, translit_lang1_type2 =
, translit_lang1_info2 =
, translit_lang1_type3 =
, translit_lang1_info3 =
, image_map = Jiangxi in China (+all claims hatched).svg
, mapsize = 275px
, map_caption = Location ...
,
Jilin
)
, image_skyline = Changbaishan Tianchi from western rim.jpg
, image_alt =
, image_caption = View of Heaven Lake
, image_map = Jilin in China (+all claims hatched).svg
, mapsize = 275px
, map_al ...
, and
Liaoning
)
, image_skyline =
, image_alt =
, image_caption = Clockwise: Mukden Palace in Shenyang, Xinghai Square in Dalian, Dalian coast, Yalu River at Dandong
, image_map = Liaoning in China (+all claims hatched).svg
, ...
.
Ecology
''Panax quinquefolius'' is a summer flowering plant. In
New England
New England is a region consisting of six states in the Northeastern United States: Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont. It is bordered by the state of New York (state), New York to the west and by the ...
, flower buds and leaves emerge simultaneously around the middle of June, with flowers eventually appearing in July. Fruits mature to a deep red color by early September. The seeds exhibit a type of dormancy called
morphophysiological dormancy, sometimes called "double dormancy", which requires two full winters to completely break dormancy. Germination finally takes place eighteen months after the fruit initially ripened.
Exploitation and conservation
Europeans discovered ginseng near
Montreal
Montreal is the List of towns in Quebec, largest city in the Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Quebec, the List of the largest municipalities in Canada by population, second-largest in Canada, and the List of North American cit ...
in 1716. By 1720, ginseng from
Quebec
Quebec is Canada's List of Canadian provinces and territories by area, largest province by area. Located in Central Canada, the province shares borders with the provinces of Ontario to the west, Newfoundland and Labrador to the northeast, ...
was exported to
China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
by the
Company of the Indies, a French trading company. Within a few decades, ginseng populations near Montreal were suffering from
overharvesting
Overexploitation, also called overharvesting or ecological overshoot, refers to harvesting a renewable resource to the point of diminishing returns. Continued overexploitation can lead to the destruction of the resource, as it will be unable to ...
and habitat destruction, and so the wild-harvesting of ginseng began to spread south. By the end of the 18th century,
Albany, New York
Albany ( ) is the List of capitals in the United States, capital city of the U.S. state of New York (state), New York. It is located on the west bank of the Hudson River, about south of its confluence with the Mohawk River. Albany is the oldes ...
had become a trading center for ginseng. In the United States, 13.7 million kilograms of wild ginseng root were exported between 1821 and 1899, with an average of about 1.7 million kilograms per decade.
More than 290,000 kilograms of dry ginseng roots were exported from the United States (U.S.) in 1841. It is estimated that this represents at least 64 million roots. By
extrapolation
In mathematics
Mathematics is a field of study that discovers and organizes methods, Mathematical theory, theories and theorems that are developed and Mathematical proof, proved for the needs of empirical sciences and mathematics itself. ...
, more than 3 billion roots (and therefore plants) were wild-harvested in the U.S. between 1821 and 1899.
During the twentieth century, exports of wild ginseng from the U.S. were about half of what they were during the previous century, averaging about 580,000 kilograms per decade. Between 2000 and 2020, U.S. exports of wild ginseng dropped to approximately 250,000 kilograms per decade.
The steady decline in export volume is likely the result of declining wild populations.
Export control
To control international trade, ''Panax quinquefolius'' is listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (
CITES
CITES (shorter acronym for the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, also known as the Washington Convention) is a multilateral treaty to protect endangered plants and animals from the threats of inte ...
). CITES Appendix II includes species that, although currently not threatened with global extinction, may become so without trade controls. , nineteen (19) states and one tribe are authorized to export American ginseng from the United States. The following table lists the states and tribe with an approved
CITES
CITES (shorter acronym for the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, also known as the Washington Convention) is a multilateral treaty to protect endangered plants and animals from the threats of inte ...
export permit for American ginseng (each state's
NatureServe conservation status
The NatureServe conservation status system, maintained and presented by NatureServe in cooperation with the Natural Heritage Network, was developed in the United States in the 1980s by The Nature Conservancy (TNC) as a means for ranking or categor ...
is shown in parentheses):
From 1978 to 2019, 1,713,025 kilograms of wild and wild-simulated ginseng roots were legally exported from the United States. During this period, the bulk of exports came from southern
Appalachia
Appalachia ( ) is a geographic region located in the Appalachian Mountains#Regions, central and southern sections of the Appalachian Mountains in the east of North America. In the north, its boundaries stretch from the western Catskill Mountai ...
n states including Kentucky, West Virginia, Tennessee, and North Carolina. Of these, eastern Kentucky has consistently large harvests, apparently a result of habitat abundance, very high levels of rural poverty, and a very strong local tradition of ginseng collecting. American ginseng also grows wild in a number of states that do not permit export, including Connecticut (S2), Delaware (S2), Kansas (S1), Maine (S3), Massachusetts (S3), Michigan (S2S3), Nebraska (S1), New Hampshire (S2), New Jersey (S2), Oklahoma (S1), Rhode Island (S1), and South Carolina (S4).
Status
As determined by the
Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada
The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC, French: Comité sur la situation des espèces en péril au Canada, COSEPAC) is an independent committee of wildlife experts and scientists whose "raison d'être is to identify s ...
, the conservation status of ''Panax quinquefolius'' is Endangered (E) in Canada. In
Ontario
Ontario is the southernmost Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Canada. Located in Central Canada, Ontario is the Population of Canada by province and territory, country's most populous province. As of the 2021 Canadian census, it ...
and
Quebec
Quebec is Canada's List of Canadian provinces and territories by area, largest province by area. Located in Central Canada, the province shares borders with the provinces of Ontario to the west, Newfoundland and Labrador to the northeast, ...
, it is listed as Endangered and Threatened, respectively. Both provincial designations refer to a species facing imminent extinction or
extirpation
Local extinction, also extirpation, is the termination of a species (or other taxon) in a chosen geographic area of study, though it still exists elsewhere. Local extinctions are contrasted with extinction, global extinctions.
Local extinctions ...
. Consequently, the harvesting, possession, and export of wild American Ginseng in Canada is prohibited.
, the
NatureServe conservation status
The NatureServe conservation status system, maintained and presented by NatureServe in cooperation with the Natural Heritage Network, was developed in the United States in the 1980s by The Nature Conservancy (TNC) as a means for ranking or categor ...
of ''Panax quinquefolius'' is globally vulnerable (G3G4). It is vulnerable (S3) in 14 states; imperiled (S2) in 8 states and provinces; critically imperiled (S1) in 6 states; and possibly extirpated (SH) in the
District of Columbia
Washington, D.C., formally the District of Columbia and commonly known as Washington or D.C., is the capital city and Federal district of the United States, federal district of the United States. The city is on the Potomac River, across from ...
.
In addition to (or in lieu of) the NatureServe conservation status (in parentheses below), some states designate their own conservation status:
*
Connecticut
Connecticut ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the New England region of the Northeastern United States. It borders Rhode Island to the east, Massachusetts to the north, New York (state), New York to the west, and Long Island Sound to the south. ...
(S2): Special Concern
*
Delaware
Delaware ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Mid-Atlantic (United States), Mid-Atlantic and South Atlantic states, South Atlantic regions of the United States. It borders Maryland to its south and west, Pennsylvania to its north, New Jersey ...
(S2)
*
Georgia
Georgia most commonly refers to:
* Georgia (country), a country in the South Caucasus
* Georgia (U.S. state), a state in the southeastern United States
Georgia may also refer to:
People and fictional characters
* Georgia (name), a list of pe ...
(S3)
*
Illinois
Illinois ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern United States. It borders on Lake Michigan to its northeast, the Mississippi River to its west, and the Wabash River, Wabash and Ohio River, Ohio rivers to its ...
(S3?)
*
Indiana
Indiana ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern region of the United States. It borders Lake Michigan to the northwest, Michigan to the north and northeast, Ohio to the east, the Ohio River and Kentucky to the s ...
(S3)
*
Iowa
Iowa ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the upper Midwestern United States, Midwestern region of the United States. It borders the Mississippi River to the east and the Missouri River and Big Sioux River to the west; Wisconsin to the northeast, Ill ...
(S3)
*
Kansas
Kansas ( ) is a landlocked U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern region of the United States. It borders Nebraska to the north; Missouri to the east; Oklahoma to the south; and Colorado to the west. Kansas is named a ...
(S1)
*
Kentucky
Kentucky (, ), officially the Commonwealth of Kentucky, is a landlocked U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern region of the United States. It borders Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio to the north, West Virginia to the ...
(S3)
*
Louisiana
Louisiana ( ; ; ) is a state in the Deep South and South Central regions of the United States. It borders Texas to the west, Arkansas to the north, and Mississippi to the east. Of the 50 U.S. states, it ranks 31st in area and 25 ...
(S1)
*
Maine
Maine ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the New England region of the United States, and the northeasternmost state in the Contiguous United States. It borders New Hampshire to the west, the Gulf of Maine to the southeast, and the Provinces and ...
(S3): Endangered
*
Maryland
Maryland ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Mid-Atlantic (United States), Mid-Atlantic region of the United States. It borders the states of Virginia to its south, West Virginia to its west, Pennsylvania to its north, and Delaware to its east ...
(S2S3)
*
Massachusetts
Massachusetts ( ; ), officially the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, is a U.S. state, state in the New England region of the Northeastern United States. It borders the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Maine to its east, Connecticut and Rhode ...
(S3): Special Concern
*
Michigan
Michigan ( ) is a peninsular U.S. state, state in the Great Lakes region, Great Lakes region of the Upper Midwest, Upper Midwestern United States. It shares water and land boundaries with Minnesota to the northwest, Wisconsin to the west, ...
(S2S3): Threatened
*
Minnesota
Minnesota ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Upper Midwestern region of the United States. It is bordered by the Canadian provinces of Manitoba and Ontario to the north and east and by the U.S. states of Wisconsin to the east, Iowa to the so ...
(S3): Special Concern
*
Mississippi
Mississippi ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern and Deep South regions of the United States. It borders Tennessee to the north, Alabama to the east, the Gulf of Mexico to the south, Louisiana to the s ...
(S3)
*
Nebraska
Nebraska ( ) is a landlocked U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern region of the United States. It borders South Dakota to the north; Iowa to the east and Missouri to the southeast, both across the Missouri River; Ka ...
(S1): Threatened
*
New Hampshire
New Hampshire ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the New England region of the Northeastern United States. It borders Massachusetts to the south, Vermont to the west, Maine and the Gulf of Maine to the east, and the Canadian province of Quebec t ...
(S2): Threatened
*
New Jersey
New Jersey is a U.S. state, state located in both the Mid-Atlantic States, Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern United States, Northeastern regions of the United States. Located at the geographic hub of the urban area, heavily urbanized Northeas ...
(S2): S1
*
New York
New York most commonly refers to:
* New York (state), a state in the northeastern United States
* New York City, the most populous city in the United States, located in the state of New York
New York may also refer to:
Places United Kingdom
* ...
(S4): Exploitably Vulnerable
*
North Carolina
North Carolina ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered by Virginia to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, South Carolina to the south, Georgia (U.S. stat ...
(S3S4): Rare but Relatively Secure; Exploited
*
Oklahoma
Oklahoma ( ; Choctaw language, Choctaw: , ) is a landlocked U.S. state, state in the South Central United States, South Central region of the United States. It borders Texas to the south and west, Kansas to the north, Missouri to the northea ...
(S1)
*
Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania, officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a U.S. state, state spanning the Mid-Atlantic (United States), Mid-Atlantic, Northeastern United States, Northeastern, Appalachian, and Great Lakes region, Great Lakes regions o ...
(S4): Pennsylvania Vulnerable
*
Rhode Island
Rhode Island ( ) is a state in the New England region of the Northeastern United States. It borders Connecticut to its west; Massachusetts to its north and east; and the Atlantic Ocean to its south via Rhode Island Sound and Block Is ...
(S1): State Endangered
*
South Dakota
South Dakota (; Sioux language, Sioux: , ) is a U.S. state, state in the West North Central states, North Central region of the United States. It is also part of the Great Plains. South Dakota is named after the Dakota people, Dakota Sioux ...
(S1)
*
Tennessee
Tennessee (, ), officially the State of Tennessee, is a landlocked U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern region of the United States. It borders Kentucky to the north, Virginia to the northeast, North Carolina t ...
(S3S4): Special Concern; Commercially Exploited
*
Vermont
Vermont () is a U.S. state, state in the New England region of the Northeastern United States. It borders Massachusetts to the south, New Hampshire to the east, New York (state), New York to the west, and the Provinces and territories of Ca ...
(S3): High Priority Species of Greatest Conservation Need
*
Virginia
Virginia, officially the Commonwealth of Virginia, is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern and Mid-Atlantic (United States), Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States between the East Coast of the United States ...
(S3S4): Threatened
*
West Virginia
West Virginia is a mountainous U.S. state, state in the Southern United States, Southern and Mid-Atlantic (United States), Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States.The United States Census Bureau, Census Bureau and the Association of American ...
(S3S4)
''Panax quinquefolius'' is apparently secure (S4) in New York and Pennsylvania (as shown above), as well as
Alabama
Alabama ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern and Deep South, Deep Southern regions of the United States. It borders Tennessee to the north, Georgia (U.S. state), Georgia to the east, Florida and the Gu ...
,
Arkansas
Arkansas ( ) is a landlocked state in the West South Central region of the Southern United States. It borders Missouri to the north, Tennessee and Mississippi to the east, Louisiana to the south, Texas to the southwest, and Oklahoma ...
,
Missouri
Missouri (''see #Etymology and pronunciation, pronunciation'') is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern region of the United States. Ranking List of U.S. states and territories by area, 21st in land area, it border ...
,
Ohio
Ohio ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern region of the United States. It borders Lake Erie to the north, Pennsylvania to the east, West Virginia to the southeast, Kentucky to the southwest, Indiana to the ...
,
South Carolina
South Carolina ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern region of the United States. It borders North Carolina to the north and northeast, the Atlantic Ocean to the southeast, and Georgia (U.S. state), Georg ...
, and
Wisconsin
Wisconsin ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Great Lakes region, Great Lakes region of the Upper Midwest of the United States. It borders Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake Michigan to the east, Michig ...
.
Threats
American ginseng was formerly particularly widespread in the
Appalachian and
Ozark
The Ozarks, also known as the Ozark Mountains, Ozark Highlands or Ozark Plateau, is a physiographic region in the U.S. states of Missouri, Arkansas, and Oklahoma, as well as a small area in the southeastern corner of Kansas. The Ozarks cov ...
regions (and adjacent forested regions such as
Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania, officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a U.S. state, state spanning the Mid-Atlantic (United States), Mid-Atlantic, Northeastern United States, Northeastern, Appalachian, and Great Lakes region, Great Lakes regions o ...
,
New York
New York most commonly refers to:
* New York (state), a state in the northeastern United States
* New York City, the most populous city in the United States, located in the state of New York
New York may also refer to:
Places United Kingdom
* ...
and
Ontario
Ontario is the southernmost Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Canada. Located in Central Canada, Ontario is the Population of Canada by province and territory, country's most populous province. As of the 2021 Canadian census, it ...
). Due to its popularity and unique habitat requirements, the wild plant has been
overharvested
Overexploitation, also called overharvesting or ecological overshoot, refers to harvesting a renewable resource to the point of diminishing returns. Continued overexploitation can lead to the destruction of the resource, as it will be unable to ...
, as well as lost through destruction of its habitat, and is thus rare in most parts of the United States and Canada. Ginseng is also negatively affected by deer
browsing
Browsing is a kind of orienting strategy. It is supposed to identify something of relevance for the browsing organism. In context of humans, it is a metaphor taken from the animal kingdom. It is used, for example, about people browsing open sh ...
, urbanization, and
habitat fragmentation
Habitat fragmentation describes the emergence of discontinuities (fragmentation) in an organism's preferred environment (habitat), causing population fragmentation and ecosystem decay. Causes of habitat fragmentation include geological proces ...
. Today the greatest threat to American ginseng is irresponsible digging of its wild roots for export.
Cultivation
As wild populations of American ginseng began to decline in the late 19th century, a market developed for cultivated ginseng. In 1887, the tinsmith George Stanton planted ginseng in the forest around
Apulia Station, a hamlet in the town of
Fabius
In Roman mythology, Fabius was the son of Hercules and an unnamed mother.
In "The Life of Fabius Maximus" from the ''Parallel Lives'' by Plutarch, Fabius, the first of his name, was the son of Hercules by a nymph or a woman native to the country, ...
in Onondaga County, New York. Within a few years, he was growing ginseng in the open under artificial shade, and by the late 1890s, he had the largest ginseng plantation in the United States. In his obituary (1908), Stanton was called the Father of the Cultivated Ginseng Industry.
Several associations were formed to support commercial growers of American ginseng. In 1902, George Stanton became the first president of the New York State Ginseng Growers Association. By 1913, the Wisconsin, Michigan, and Ohio growers' associations had the largest memberships. American ginseng is the state herb of Wisconsin.
American ginseng is grown commercially under artificial shade. Under these conditions, a crop is harvested three to five years after seeding. Ginseng is also grown under forest-based, wild-simulated conditions, which require 6–10 years (or more) before harvest. Based solely on yield, forest farming may be 1/10 as productive as commercial cultivation.
American ginseng is commercially cultivated in Canada (60%), United States (30%), and China (7%). In North America, it is cultivated primarily in
Ontario
Ontario is the southernmost Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Canada. Located in Central Canada, Ontario is the Population of Canada by province and territory, country's most populous province. As of the 2021 Canadian census, it ...
,
Wisconsin
Wisconsin ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Great Lakes region, Great Lakes region of the Upper Midwest of the United States. It borders Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake Michigan to the east, Michig ...
, and
British Columbia
British Columbia is the westernmost Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Canada. Situated in the Pacific Northwest between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains, the province has a diverse geography, with rugged landscapes that ...
. In 1994, Ontario and Wisconsin produced 1.5 and 2.0 million pounds of ginseng, respectively, while British Columbia produced 0.5 million pounds. In other words, Canada and the United States each produced 2.0 million pounds (1,000 tons) of ginseng in 1994. In contrast, in 2007, Canada and the United States produced an estimated 6,486 tons and 1,054 tons (resp.) of ginseng, exporting $66 million and $37 million (resp.) worth of ginseng in 2009. As of 2020, global ''P. quinquefolius'' production is estimated at 7,000 tons on a dry-weight basis, with 60% produced in Canada, 30% in China, and 10% in the US. Based on these figures, Canada is the largest producer and exporter of American ginseng in the world.
Some states encourage the planting of ginseng both to restore natural habitats and to remove pressure from remaining wild populations. American ginseng is woods-cultivated in Colorado, Kentucky, Maine, North Carolina, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, and West Virginia.
Toxicity
For the related Korean ginseng species: Individuals requiring
anticoagulant
An anticoagulant, commonly known as a blood thinner, is a chemical substance that prevents or reduces the coagulation of blood, prolonging the clotting time. Some occur naturally in blood-eating animals, such as leeches and mosquitoes, which ...
therapy such as
warfarin
Warfarin, sold under the brand name Coumadin among others. It is used as an anticoagulant, anticoagulant medication. It is commonly used to prevent deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism, and to protect against stroke in people who ha ...
should avoid use of ginseng.
[ It is not recommended for individuals with impaired liver or renal function, or during pregnancy or breastfeeding.][ Other adverse effects include headaches, anxiety, trouble sleeping and an upset stomach.][ Data is insufficient for American ginseng.
Recent studies have shown that through the many cultivated procedures that American ginseng is grown, fungal molds, pesticides, and various metals and residues have contaminated the crop. Though these contaminating effects are not considerably substantial, they do pose health concerns that could lead to neurological problems, intoxication, cardiovascular disease and cancer.
]
Uses
Ginseng
Ginseng () is the root of plants in the genus ''Panax'', such as South China ginseng (''Panax notoginseng, P. notoginseng''), Korean ginseng (''Panax ginseng, P. ginseng''), and American ginseng (''American ginseng, P. quinquefol ...
has been a part of traditional Chinese medicine
Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is an alternative medicine, alternative medical practice drawn from traditional medicine in China. A large share of its claims are pseudoscientific, with the majority of treatments having no robust evidence ...
for over 2,000 years. In Asia, American ginseng is highly valued for its cooling and sedative medicinal effects (yin), whereas Asian ginseng
''Panax ginseng'', ginseng, also known as Asian ginseng, Chinese ginseng or Korean ginseng, is a species of plant whose root is the original source of ginseng. It is a perennial plant that grows in the mountains of East Asia. It is mainly cultiv ...
embodies the warmer aspects of yang.
American ginseng was of minor importance in traditional Native American medicine. A number of the uses cited in the literature were likely adopted from the Chinese after the export trade from Canada to China began in 1720. The Iroquois
The Iroquois ( ), also known as the Five Nations, and later as the Six Nations from 1722 onwards; alternatively referred to by the Endonym and exonym, endonym Haudenosaunee ( ; ) are an Iroquoian languages, Iroquoian-speaking Confederation#Ind ...
ingested or smoked the roots as a panacea
In Greek mythology and religion, Panacea (Greek ''Πανάκεια'', Panakeia), a goddess of universal remedy, was the daughter of Asclepius and Epione.
Mythology
Panacea and her four sisters each performed a facet of Apollo's art:
* Panac ...
. The Menominee
The Menominee ( ; meaning ''"Menominee People"'', also spelled Menomini, derived from the Ojibwe language word for "Wild Rice People"; known as ''Mamaceqtaw'', "the people", in the Menominee language) are a federally recognized tribe of Na ...
in northern Wisconsin used it as a tonic and to increase one's mental capability, while the Penobscot
The Penobscot (Abenaki: ''Pαnawάhpskewi'') are an Indigenous people in North America from the Northeastern Woodlands region. They are organized as a federally recognized tribe in Maine and as a First Nations band government in the Atlantic p ...
in Maine used it to promote fertility. The Seminole
The Seminole are a Native American people who developed in Florida in the 18th century. Today, they live in Oklahoma and Florida, and comprise three federally recognized tribes: the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma, the Seminole Tribe of Florida, ...
in Florida used it for gunshot wounds. Native peoples from multiple tribes gathered the roots to barter with white traders. In the late 19th century, the Cherokee
The Cherokee (; , or ) people are one of the Indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands of the United States. Prior to the 18th century, they were concentrated in their homelands, in towns along river valleys of what is now southwestern ...
sold large quantities of ginseng to traders for fifty cents a pound. According to James Mooney
James Mooney (February 10, 1861 – December 22, 1921) was an American ethnographer who lived for several years among the Cherokee. Known as "The Indian Man", he conducted major studies of Southeastern Indians, as well as of tribes on the Great ...
, a decoction made from its roots was drunk to relieve headaches and cramps.[, s.v. Selected List of Plants Used ]
Cold-fX is a product derived from the roots of American ginseng (''Panax quinquefolius''). The makers of Cold-fX were criticized for making health claim
A health claim on a food label and in food marketing is a claim by a manufacturer of food products that their food will reduce the risk of developing a disease or condition. For example, it is claimed by the manufacturers of oat cereals that oa ...
s about the product that have never been tested or verified scientifically. Health Canada's review of the scientific literature confirmed that this is not a claim that the manufacturer is entitled to make. More generally, there is no evidence that American ginseng is effective against the common cold
The common cold, or the cold, is a virus, viral infectious disease of the upper respiratory tract that primarily affects the Respiratory epithelium, respiratory mucosa of the human nose, nose, throat, Paranasal sinuses, sinuses, and larynx. ...
.
Culture
In the local vernacular, American ginseng has been variously known as "cheng", "chang", "sang", or "shang". Those collecting it have been called "shangers" and hunting for it has been called "shanging". In Appalachia
Appalachia ( ) is a geographic region located in the Appalachian Mountains#Regions, central and southern sections of the Appalachian Mountains in the east of North America. In the north, its boundaries stretch from the western Catskill Mountai ...
, the wild-harvesting of American ginseng is called "sang hunting". Some blue-collar Appalachian families have been hunting sang for generations.
Gallery
File:Americanginseng.jpg, American ginseng in human figure.
File:MonkGinsengGarden.jpg, Under wooden shade, American ginseng in late fall at Monk Garden in Wisconsin
File:American-ginseng-with-fruit.jpg, A picture of the American ginseng plant with fruit.
File:Marathonginsengberry.jpg, American ginseng berries are ripe by late fall in Wisconsin.
File:Drawn image of fruit and leaf.jpg, A drawn image of the fruit and leaf of the American ginseng plant.
File:Drawn image.png, A drawn image of the American ginseng plants leaves.
File:American Ginseng 3.jpg, American wild ginseng root (''Panax quinquefolius''). Old roots, ranging from 40–60 growth scars.
See also
* ''Panax trifolius
''Panax trifolius'', commonly called dwarf ginseng, is a plant native to the Northeastern and Appalachian regions of North America. It is found in low mesic woods with acidic soils.
It produces an umbel of white flowers in late spring. This s ...
'', the dwarf ginseng
* ''Eleutherococcus senticosus
''Eleutherococcus senticosus'' is a species of small, woody shrub in the family Araliaceae native to Northeastern Asia. It may be colloquially called devil's bush, Siberian ginseng, taiga root, eleuthero, ''ciwujia'', ''Devil's shrub'', ''shigo ...
'', the Siberian ginseng
References
Bibliography
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
External links
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
{{Authority control
quinquefolius
Herbs
Medicinal plants of North America
Flora of the United States
Flora of Canada
Plants described in 1753
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
Agriculture in the United States
Agriculture in Canada
Plants used in traditional Native American medicine