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''Pagan Theology: Paganism as a World Religion'' is a
taxonomical In biology, taxonomy () is the scientific study of naming, defining ( circumscribing) and classifying groups of biological organisms based on shared characteristics. Organisms are grouped into taxa (singular: taxon), and these groups are given ...
study of various world religions which argues for a new definition of the word "
paganism Paganism (, later 'civilian') is a term first used in the fourth century by early Christians for people in the Roman Empire who practiced polytheism, or ethnic religions other than Christianity, Judaism, and Samaritanism. In the time of the ...
". It was written by American
religious studies Religious studies, also known as religiology or the study of religion, is the study of religion from a historical or scientific perspective. There is no consensus on what qualifies as ''religion'' and definition of religion, its definition is h ...
scholar
Michael York Michael York (born Michael Hugh Johnson; 27 March 1942) is an English film, television, and stage actor. After performing on stage with the Royal National Theatre, he had a breakthrough in films by playing Tybalt in Franco Zeffirelli's ''Romeo ...
of Bath Spa University and first published by
New York University Press New York University Press (or NYU Press) is a university press that is part of New York University New York University (NYU) is a private university, private research university in New York City, New York, United States. Chartered in 1831 ...
in 2003. In ''Pagan Theology'', York presents his controversial theory that the term "paganism", originally a pejorative term to refer to non-Christian religions, should instead be used by scholars to refer specifically to those religious movements who share the common characteristics of
polytheism Polytheism is the belief in or worship of more than one god. According to Oxford Reference, it is not easy to count gods, and so not always obvious whether an apparently polytheistic religion, such as Chinese folk religions, is really so, or whet ...
,
animism Animism (from meaning 'breath, spirit, life') is the belief that objects, places, and creatures all possess a distinct spiritual essence. Animism perceives all things—animals, plants, rocks, rivers, weather systems, human handiwork, and in ...
and life-affirming beliefs. Under this category of "paganism", York therefore includes the extinct historical faiths of pre-Christian Europe, living
indigenous religions Indigenous religion or native religion is a category used in the Religious studies, study of religion to demarcate the religion, religious belief systems of communities described as being "indigenous people, indigenous". This category is often j ...
, several modern religions like
Shinto , also called Shintoism, is a religion originating in Japan. Classified as an East Asian religions, East Asian religion by Religious studies, scholars of religion, it is often regarded by its practitioners as Japan's indigenous religion and as ...
and
Hinduism Hinduism () is an Hypernymy and hyponymy, umbrella term for a range of Indian religions, Indian List of religions and spiritual traditions#Indian religions, religious and spiritual traditions (Sampradaya, ''sampradaya''s) that are unified ...
, and the new religious movements of contemporary paganism. Furthermore, York argues that this "paganism" was the "root religion" of humanity, from which later monotheistic religions like Judaism, Christianity and Islam developed. Academic reviews of York's book were mixed, with reviewers making note of the ambitious nature of ''Pagan Theology'', but some believing that it failed to present an entirely convincing argument. As a result of this, not all of them agreed with York's proposed categories, citing various reasons why they believed that it should not be employed. In the wider field of
Pagan studies Pagan studies is the multidisciplinary academic field devoted to the study of modern paganism, a broad assortment of modern religious movements, which are typically influenced by or claiming to be derived from the various pagan beliefs of premodern ...
it has been criticised, most notably by Michael F. Strmiska, who argued that it contributed to the cultural oppression of indigenous peoples.


Background

At the time of writing, York was a self-proclaimed "pagan practitioner" as well as a religious studies academic. Commenting on his own personal religious and spiritual beliefs, York related that: :If I had to name my own denominational predilection, I would say that I am a "religionist." I believe in religion itself and its central role in expanding human consciousness above and beyond immediate daily concerns. I see religion as an ongoing dialogue that questions the purpose of life and our terrestrial incarnations. In my own pursuit and love of religion as religion, I have been particularly attracted to paganism not only as the source and origin of all religion but also as an organic alternative to the institutionalized and parochial insularity that much religious expression has become.


Synopsis

In his introduction, York explains his approach to
religion Religion is a range of social system, social-cultural systems, including designated religious behaviour, behaviors and practices, morals, beliefs, worldviews, religious text, texts, sanctified places, prophecies, ethics in religion, ethics, or ...
, which he chooses to define as "a shared apprehension of the world, humanity, and the supernatural and their interrelation". He proceeds to use a map as a metaphor for religion, noting that both help the individual to navigate their own way through the world. Exclaiming that paganism should be seen as a religion in itself, he criticises earlier religious studies scholars for failing to devote time to a discussion of this term, whose etymology he then explains. In the next chapter, entitled "Paganism as Religion", York argues that religious studies scholars should not use "paganism" in reference purely to pre-Christian religions in Europe or
Neopaganism Modern paganism, also known as contemporary paganism and neopaganism, spans a range of new religious movements variously influenced by the Paganism, beliefs of pre-modern peoples across Europe, North Africa, and the Near East. Despite some comm ...
, but expand it to refer to a far wider group of
animistic Animism (from meaning 'breath, Soul, spirit, life') is the belief that objects, places, and creatures all possess a distinct Spirituality, spiritual essence. Animism perceives all things—animals, plants, Rock (geology), rocks, rivers, Weather, ...
,
polytheistic Polytheism is the belief in or worship of more than one Deity, god. According to Oxford Reference, it is not easy to count gods, and so not always obvious whether an apparently polytheistic religion, such as Chinese folk religions, is really so, ...
beliefs across the world. Putting together a list of five criteria that believes can be used to define "paganism", he then explores a series of seven different religious groups or beliefs and explains how they fit into this category of his:
Chinese Folk Religion Chinese folk religion comprises a range of traditional religious practices of Han Chinese, including the Chinese diaspora. This includes the veneration of ''Shen (Chinese folk religion), shen'' ('spirits') and Chinese ancestor worship, ances ...
,
Shinto , also called Shintoism, is a religion originating in Japan. Classified as an East Asian religions, East Asian religion by Religious studies, scholars of religion, it is often regarded by its practitioners as Japan's indigenous religion and as ...
, Primal Tribal Religions,
shamanism Shamanism is a spiritual practice that involves a practitioner (shaman) interacting with the spirit world through altered states of consciousness, such as trance. The goal of this is usually to direct spirits or spiritual energies into ...
, American Indian Spirituality, Afro-American Spiritism, and Contemporary Western Paganism.


Arguments


Redefining "paganism"

In ''Pagan Theology'', York exclaims that his purpose is to "expand the concept of paganism." York 2003. p. 8. Noting that the term had been originally employed by the early Christians of the
Roman Empire The Roman Empire ruled the Mediterranean and much of Europe, Western Asia and North Africa. The Roman people, Romans conquered most of this during the Roman Republic, Republic, and it was ruled by emperors following Octavian's assumption of ...
to describe adherents of non-Jewish religions, he notes that the pre-Christian and pre-Islamic beliefs of Europe that this initial description covered are similar to other
Indigenous religion Indigenous religion or native religion is a category used in the study of religion to demarcate the religious belief systems of communities described as being " indigenous". This category is often juxtaposed against others such as the " world r ...
s across the world, and so should also be considered to be "pagan". As such, York argues that religious studies scholars should define "paganism" as a religion utilising five specific criteria, all of which were exhibited in the pre-Christian religions of Europe: :" ganism includes (1) a number of both male and female gods, (2) magical practice, (3) emphasis on ritual efficacy, (4) corpospirituality, and (5) an understanding of gods and humans as codependent and related." York argues that many of the world's religious movements fit these criteria and should therefore be labelled "pagan". This includes the original pre-Christian religions of Europe, and the Contemporary Pagan, or ''Neopagan'' religions inspired by them. To this he adds indigenous religions from North America, Australia and Africa, as well as the religions of the African diaspora such as Vodou and Santeria. He furthermore includes two east Asian faiths,
Chinese traditional religion Chinese folk religion comprises a range of traditional religious practices of Han Chinese, including the Chinese diaspora. This includes the veneration of '' shen'' ('spirits') and ancestors, and worship devoted to deities and immortals, w ...
and Japanese
Shinto , also called Shintoism, is a religion originating in Japan. Classified as an East Asian religions, East Asian religion by Religious studies, scholars of religion, it is often regarded by its practitioners as Japan's indigenous religion and as ...
, as well as any practices involving
shamanism Shamanism is a spiritual practice that involves a practitioner (shaman) interacting with the spirit world through altered states of consciousness, such as trance. The goal of this is usually to direct spirits or spiritual energies into ...
. Utilising the figures for global religious adherence that were published by David Barrett in his ''World Christian Encyclopedia'' (1982), York argues that by the year 2000, 6% of the world's population would be "pagan" under his definition of the term. According to his reckoning, this makes paganism one of the world's major religious blocs, alongside the " Christian-Islamic" bloc, the " nonreligious/atheist" bloc, the " Hindu-Buddhist" bloc, the " new religious" block and the "other" bloc, and that as such it should be defined as a
world religion World religions is a Social construction, socially-constructed category used in the Religious studies, study of religion to demarcate religions that are deemed to have been especially large, internationally widespread, or influential in the deve ...
with global coverage.


Reception and recognition


Academic reviews

In her review for the ''
Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion The ''Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion'' (''JSSR'') is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal published by Wiley-Blackwell in the United States under the auspices of the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion, dedicated to ...
'', Melissa Raphael of the
University of Gloucestershire The University of Gloucestershire is a public university based in Gloucestershire, England. It is located over five campuses, three in Cheltenham and two in Gloucester. The university is the successor of a large number of merged, name-changed ...
argued that York's work "does well to remind us that the religious academy has for too long patronized, ignored or (inaccurately) consigned pagan religion and spirituality to the "odds and ends" bin of the
New Age movement New Age is a range of spiritual or religious practices and beliefs that rapidly grew in Western society during the early 1970s. Its highly eclectic and unsystematic structure makes a precise definition difficult. Although many scholars consid ...
." Considering ''Pagan Theology'' to be a "dense and serious study", that was based upon York's "exceptionally well traveled" experiences, Raphael noted however that it was "not quite what I was expecting. The main title would have led me to believe that I had found a book on the divine in Western, earth-based neo-pagan religions. ''Pagan Theology'' is a good deal more ambitious than that". Raphael proceeded to argue that she was "disappointed" that the work "paid little attention to the inflections of gender", in particular considering the prominent role held by female deities in most of the pagan religions described in the book. She also felt some "disquiet" that the word "theology" was being used by York in reference to certain religious groups for whom "the philosophical and cultural freighting of both ''logos'' and ''theos'' are categorically and conceptually alien". Furthermore, she expressed concern over the fact that "many of the religions to which York ascribes paganism would disown it" whilst others would "deny that they share any common essence with other religions." In her review for the ''
Sociology of Religion Sociology of religion is the study of the beliefs, practices and organizational forms of religion using the tools and methods of the discipline of sociology. This objective investigation may include the use both of Quantitative research, quantit ...
'' journal, Mary Jo Neitz of the
University of Missouri The University of Missouri (Mizzou or MU) is a public university, public Land-grant university, land-grant research university in Columbia, Missouri, United States. It is Missouri's largest university and the flagship of the four-campus Univers ...
noted that she agreed with York that "paganism is a legitimate category of religion for both practitioners and for those of us who study religion." Nonetheless, she disagreed with his position of "establishing universal definitions of paganism as a world religion or an essential practice", arguing that in doing so he was "gloss ngover significant differences" between different religious groups by "universalizing" them under cover-all categories. On a more positive note, she felt that the book would be a useful text for those studying courses on world religions, aiding students in asking the question as to "what scholars mean by the category of world religion itself, and who is served by maintaining the traditional boundaries which establish those belief systems and practices that count as insider and those which must be cast outside." Writing in '' The Pomegranate: The International Journal of Pagan Studies'', Barbara Jane Davy of
Concordia University Concordia University () is a Public university, public English-language research university located in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Founded in 1974 following the merger of Loyola College (Montreal), Loyola College and Sir George Williams Universit ...
described ''Pagan Theology'' as being "Part travelogue, part theological argument, ndpart sociological study", providing a "tour through paganism's multiple forms in space and time." Believing that York had presented "a good argument" for using the term "paganism" to refer to a global "root religion", she noted however that "Some readers will sense a conflict between York's presentation of paganism as a world religion and as root religion. This perhaps derives from an ambiguity in his desires about paganism: for it to be a 'proper' religion, worthy of study, and a legitimate form of religious practice, but also to present it as distinctive, unlike all other religion, and as foundational to all religion." She also praised his use of the lower case "paganism" to refer to the global phenomenon, arguing that it "differentiates his subject matter from what is usually understood in Pagan studies as contemporary Paganism, Neopaganism, or sometimes modern or Western Paganism." Ultimately, she remarked that her "only complaint" was that she would have liked to have seen York "relate his understanding of paganism to
Robert Redfield Robert Redfield (December 4, 1897 – October 16, 1958) was an American anthropologist and ethnolinguist, whose ethnographic work in Tepoztlán, Mexico, is considered a landmark of Latin American ethnography. He was associated with the Universi ...
's understanding of folk practices in terms of "little traditions" as opposed to the institutionalized "great traditions" usually identified as "world religions," discussed in ''The Little Community and Peasant Society and Culture'' (1969)."


Reception in Pagan studies scholarship


Chas S. Clifton and ''The Pomegranate''

Writing in volume 6.1 of '' The Pomegranate: The International Journal of Pagan Studies'' (2004), the journal's editor, Chas S. Clifton of Colorado State University–Pueblo, made reference to York's work in his discussion of the definition of Pagan studies. Clifton 2004. p. 6. Clifton proceeded to argue that the development of Pagan studies was necessary to "set forth an audacious redefinition of the term "pagan" as Michael York has done", something which Clifton felt "gives us room to reexamine from fresh perspectives all manifestation of ancient Pagan religions". Clifton 2004. pp. 7–8.


Michael F. Strmiska

Writing in the opening paper of his edited academic anthology '' Modern Paganism in World Cultures: Comparative Perspectives'' (2005), the American religious studies scholar Michael F. Strmiska, then working at
Central Connecticut State University Central Connecticut State University (Central Connecticut, CCSU, Central Connecticut State, or informally Central) is a public university in New Britain, Connecticut. Founded in 1849 as the State Normal School, CCSU is Connecticut's oldest publi ...
, commented on York's argument in ''Pagan Theology'', noting that it was the same as that made by the political scientist and practicing Wiccan Gus DiZerega in his book ''Pagans and Christians: The Personal Spiritual Experience'' (2001). Strmiska 2005. p. 11. Although considering such a theory to be "thought provoking", Strmiska ultimately rejected it because he felt that "blurring together the religious identities of these many different peoples, with their vastly different historical and contemporary situations, does a disservice to Indigenous peoples' struggles for postcolonial self-determination by conflating them with the very peoples they see as their oppressors and colonizers." Although accepting that "modern Euro-American Pagans" were often "sympathetic" to Indigenous peoples and "interested in learning aspects" of their "cultural and religious traditions", Strmiska noted that the "contemporary situations" between the two ethno-cultural groups was "quite different" and that this "brutal social reality and the immense historical, economic, and political realities that lie behind it cannot be bridged by a simple labelling process or ameliorated by a unilateral proclamation of spiritual unity between modern Pagans and Indigenous peoples." Strmiska also felt that it was "worth observing the simple courtesy of calling people by the names they wish to be known by and not calling them by names they reject or are uncomfortable with. The designations ''Pagan'' and ''Paganism'', let alone ''Neopagan'' or ''Neopaganism'', are not the terms of choice that Native Americans or other Indigenous peoples usually apply to themselves and their religious traditions." Strmiska 2005. p. 13. He proceeded to argue that " sagreements over terminology may seem petty or trivial, but they are not if we consider what is at stake for modern Pagans." In particular, he noted both the historical persecution of those labelled pagans and the continued "legal and political" oppression of modern Pagans.


References


Footnotes


Bibliography

;Academic sources * * * * * ;Academic book reviews * * * * * {{Pagan studies 2000s in modern paganism 2003 non-fiction books Books about modern paganism English-language non-fiction books Modern pagan literature Modern pagan theology Modern paganism in the United States New York University Press books Pagan studies books Religious studies books