Package testing or packaging testing involves the measurement of a characteristic or property involved with

packaging Packaging is the science, art and technology of enclosing or protecting products for distribution, storage, sale, and use. Packaging also refers to the process of designing, evaluating, and producing packages. Packaging can be described as a coo ...

. This includes packaging materials, packaging components, primary packages,

shipping container A shipping container is a container with strength suitable to withstand shipment, storage, and handling. Shipping containers range from large reusable steel boxes used for intermodal shipments to the ubiquitous corrugated box design, corrugated b ...

s, and unit loads, as well as the associated processes. Testing measures the effects and interactions of the levels of packaging, the package contents, external forces, and end-use. It can involve controlled

laboratory A laboratory (; ; colloquially lab) is a facility that provides controlled conditions in which scientific or technological research, experiments, and measurement may be performed. Laboratories are found in a variety of settings such as schools ...

experiment An experiment is a procedure carried out to support or refute a hypothesis, or determine the efficacy or likelihood of something previously untried. Experiments provide insight into cause-and-effect by demonstrating what outcome occurs whe ...

s, subjective evaluations by people, or field testing. Documentation is important: formal

test method A test method is a method for a test in science or engineering, such as a physical test, chemical test, or statistical test. It is a specified procedure that produces a test result. To ensure accurate and relevant results, a test method should b ...

, test report, photographs, video, etc. Testing can be a qualitative or

quantitative Quantitative may refer to: * Quantitative research, scientific investigation of quantitative properties * Quantitative analysis (disambiguation) * Quantitative verse, a metrical system in poetry * Statistics, also known as quantitative analysis ...

procedure. Package testing is often a

physical test A physical test is a qualitative or quantitative procedure that consists of determination of one or more characteristics of a given product, process or service according to a specified procedure.ASTM E 1301, Standard Guide for Proficiency Testing ...

. With some types of packaging such as food and pharmaceuticals,

chemical test In chemistry, a chemical test is a qualitative property, qualitative or Quantitative property, quantitative procedure designed to identify, quantify, or characterise a chemical compound or substituent, chemical group. Purposes Chemical testing m ...

s are conducted to determine suitability of

food contact materials Food contact materials or food contacting substances (FCS) are materials that are intended to be in contact with food. These can be things that are quite obvious like a glass or a can for soft drinks as well as machinery in a food factory or a ...

. Testing programs range from simple tests with little replication to more thorough

experimental design The design of experiments (DOE), also known as experiment design or experimental design, is the design of any task that aims to describe and explain the variation of information under conditions that are hypothesized to reflect the variation. ...

s. Package testing can extend for the full life cycle. Packages can be tested for their ability to be

recycle ReCycle is a music loop editor designed and developed by Sweden, Swedish software developers Propellerhead Software. It runs on Microsoft Windows and Apple Macintosh based Personal Computer, PCs. The software debuted in 1994. The principal idea ...

d and their ability to degrade as surface

litter Litter consists of waste products that have been discarded incorrectly, without consent, at an unsuitable location. The waste is objects, often man-made, such as aluminum cans, paper cups, food wrappers, cardboard boxes or plastic bottles, but ...

, in a sealed

landfill A landfill is a site for the disposal of waste materials. It is the oldest and most common form of waste disposal, although the systematic burial of waste with daily, intermediate and final covers only began in the 1940s. In the past, waste was ...

or under

compost Compost is a mixture of ingredients used as plant fertilizer and to improve soil's physical, chemical, and biological properties. It is commonly prepared by Decomposition, decomposing plant and food waste, recycling organic materials, and man ...

ing conditions.

Purposes

Packaging testing might have a variety of purposes, such as: * Determine if, or verify that, the requirements of a

specification A specification often refers to a set of documented requirements to be satisfied by a material, design, product, or service. A specification is often a type of technical standard. There are different types of technical or engineering specificati ...

regulation Regulation is the management of complex systems according to a set of rules and trends. In systems theory, these types of rules exist in various fields of biology and society, but the term has slightly different meanings according to context. Fo ...

, or

contract A contract is an agreement that specifies certain legally enforceable rights and obligations pertaining to two or more parties. A contract typically involves consent to transfer of goods, services, money, or promise to transfer any of thos ...

are met * Decide if a

new product development New product development (NPD) or product development in business and engineering covers the complete process of launching a new product to the market. Product development also includes the renewal of an existing product and introducing a product ...

program is on track: Demonstrate

proof of concept A proof of concept (POC or PoC), also known as proof of principle, is an inchoate realization of a certain idea or method in order to demonstrate its feasibility or viability. A proof of concept is usually small and may or may not be complete ...

* Provide standard

data Data ( , ) are a collection of discrete or continuous values that convey information, describing the quantity, quality, fact, statistics, other basic units of meaning, or simply sequences of symbols that may be further interpreted for ...

for other scientific, engineering, and

quality assurance Quality assurance (QA) is the term used in both manufacturing and service industries to describe the systematic efforts taken to assure that the product(s) delivered to customer(s) meet with the contractual and other agreed upon performance, design ...

functions * Validate suitability for end-use * Provide a basis for

technical communication Technical communication (or tech comm) is communication of technical subject matter such as engineering, science, or technology content. The largest part of it tends to be technical writing, though importantly it often requires aspects of visual ...

* Provide a technical means of comparison of several options * Provide

evidence Evidence for a proposition is what supports the proposition. It is usually understood as an indication that the proposition is truth, true. The exact definition and role of evidence vary across different fields. In epistemology, evidence is what J ...

in legal proceedings:

product liability Product liability is the area of law in which manufacturers, distributors, suppliers, retailers, and others who make products available to the public are held responsible for the injuries those products cause. Although the word "product" has ...

patents A patent is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the legal right to exclude others from making, using, or selling an invention for a limited period of time in exchange for publishing an sufficiency of disclosure, enabling discl ...

, product claims, etc. * Help solve problems with current packaging * Help identify potential cost savings in packaging Packaging tests can be used for: * Subjecting packages (and contents) to stresses and dynamics found in the field * Reproducing the types of damage to packages and contents found in actual shipments * Control uniform production of packages and components

Importance

For some types of products, package testing is mandated by regulations:

food Food is any substance consumed by an organism for Nutrient, nutritional support. Food is usually of plant, animal, or Fungus, fungal origin and contains essential nutrients such as carbohydrates, fats, protein (nutrient), proteins, vitamins, ...

pharmaceutical Medication (also called medicament, medicine, pharmaceutical drug, medicinal product, medicinal drug or simply drug) is a drug used to diagnose, cure, treat, or prevent disease. Drug therapy ( pharmacotherapy) is an important part of the ...

medical device A medical device is any device intended to be used for medical purposes. Significant potential for hazards are inherent when using a device for medical purposes and thus medical devices must be proved safe and effective with reasonable assura ...

dangerous goods Dangerous goods are substances that are a risk to health, safety, property or the environment during transport. Certain dangerous goods that pose risks even when not being transported are known as hazardous materials ( syllabically abbreviate ...

, etc. This may cover both the design qualification, periodic retesting, and control of the packaging processes. Processes may be controlled by a variety of

quality management system A quality management system (QMS) is a collection of business processes focused on consistently meeting customer requirements and enhancing their satisfaction. It is aligned with an organization's purpose and strategic direction ( ISO 9001:2015). ...

s such as

HACCP Hazard analysis and critical control points, or HACCP (), is a systematic preventive approach to food safety from biological hazard, biological, chemical hazard, chemical, and physical hazards in production processes that can cause the finished ...

statistical process control Statistical process control (SPC) or statistical quality control (SQC) is the application of statistics, statistical methods to monitor and control the quality of a production process. This helps to ensure that the process operates efficiently, ...

, validation protocols, ISO 9000, etc. For unregulated products, testing can be required by a contract or governing specification. The degree of package testing can often be a business decision.

Risk management Risk management is the identification, evaluation, and prioritization of risks, followed by the minimization, monitoring, and control of the impact or probability of those risks occurring. Risks can come from various sources (i.e, Threat (sec ...

may involve factors such as * costs of packaging * costs of package testing * value of contents being shipped * value of customer's good will * product liability exposure * other potential costs of inadequate packaging * etc. With distribution packaging, one vital packaging development consideration is to determine if a packaged-product is likely to be damaged in the process of getting to the final customer. A primary purpose of a package is to ensure the safety of a product during transportation and storage. If a product is damaged during this process, then the package has failed to accomplish a primary objective and the customer will either return the product or be unlikely to purchase the product altogether. Package testing is often a formal part of

Project management Project management is the process of supervising the work of a Project team, team to achieve all project goals within the given constraints. This information is usually described in project initiation documentation, project documentation, crea ...

programs. Packages are usually tested when there is a new packaging design, a revision to a current design, a change in packaging material, and various other reasons. Testing a new packaging design before full scale manufacturing can save time and money.

Laboratory affiliation

Many suppliers or vendors offer limited material and package testing as a free service to customers. It is common for packagers to partner with reputable suppliers: Many suppliers have certified quality management systems such as

ISO 9000 The ISO 9000 family is a set of international standards for Quality (business), quality management systems. It was developed in March 1987 by International Organization for Standardization. The goal of these standards is to help organizations en ...

or allow customers to conduct technical and quality audits. Data from testing is commonly shared. There is sometimes a risk that supplier testing may tend to be self-serving and not completely impartial. Large companies often have their own packaging staff and a package testing and development

. Corporate engineers know their products, manufacturing capabilities, logistics system, and their customers best. Cost reduction of existing products and cost avoidance for new products have been documented. Another option is to use a paid

consultant A consultant (from "to deliberate") is a professional (also known as ''expert'', ''specialist'', see variations of meaning below) who provides advice or services in an area of specialization (generally to medium or large-size corporations). Cons ...

Independent contractor Employment is a relationship between two parties regulating the provision of paid labour services. Usually based on a contract, one party, the employer, which might be a corporation, a not-for-profit organization, a co-operative, or any oth ...

, and third-party independent testing laboratory. They are commonly chosen for specialized expertise, for access to certain test equipment, for surge projects, or where independent testing is otherwise required. Many have certifications and accreditations: ISO 9000,

ISO/IEC 17025 ISO/ IEC 17025 General requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories is the main standard used by testing and calibration laboratories. In most countries, ISO/IEC 17025 is the standard for which most labs must hold accr ...

, and various governing agencies.

Procedures

Several

standards organizations A standards organization, standards body, standards developing organization (SDO), or standards setting organization (SSO) is an organization whose primary function is developing, coordinating, promulgating, revising, amending, reissuing, interpr ...

publish test methods for package testing. Included are: *

International Organization for Standardization The International Organization for Standardization (ISO ; ; ) is an independent, non-governmental, international standard development organization composed of representatives from the national standards organizations of member countries. M ...

, ISO *

ASTM International ASTM International, formerly known as American Society for Testing and Materials, is a standards organization that develops and publishes voluntary consensus technical international standards for a wide range of materials, products, systems and s ...

European Committee for Standardization The European Committee for Standardization (CEN, ) is a public standards organization whose mission is to foster the economy of the European Single Market and the wider European continent in global trading, the welfare of European citizens an ...

. CEN * TAPPI * Military Standards * ISTA (International Safe Transit Association) Governments and regulators publish some packaging test methods. There are also many corporate test standards in use. A review of technical literature and patents provides good options to consider for test procedures. Researchers are not restricted to the use of published standards but can modify existing test methods or develop procedures specific to their particular needs. If a test is conducted with a deviation from a published test method or if a new method is employed, the test report must fully disclose the procedure.

Materials testing

The basis of packaging design and performance is the component materials. The

physical properties A physical property is any property of a physical system that is measurable. The changes in the physical properties of a system can be used to describe its changes between momentary states. A quantifiable physical property is called ''physical ...

, and sometimes

chemical properties A chemical property is any of a material property, material's properties that becomes evident during, or after, a chemical reaction; that is, any attribute that can be established only by changing a substance's chemical substance, chemical identit ...

, of the materials need to be communicated to packaging engineers to aid in the design process. Suppliers publish

data sheet A datasheet, data sheet, or spec sheet is a document that summarizes the performance and other characteristics of a product, machine, component (e.g., an electronic component), material, subsystem (e.g., a power supply), or software in sufficie ...

s and other technical communications that include the typical or average relevant physical properties and the test method these are based upon. Sometimes these are adequate. Other times, additional material and component testing is required by the packager or supplier to better define certain characteristics. When a final package design is complete, the specifications for the component materials needs to be communicated to suppliers. Packaging materials testing is often needed to identify the critical material characteristics and

engineering tolerance Engineering tolerance is the permissible limit or limits of variation in: # a physical dimension; # a measured value or physical property of a material, manufactured object, system, or service; # other measured values (such as temperature, hum ...

s. These are used to prepare and enforce specifications. For example,

shrink film Shrink wrap, also shrink film, is a material made up of polymer plastic film. When heat is applied, it shrinks tightly over whatever it is covering. Heat can be applied with a handheld heat gun (electric or gas), or the product and film can p ...

data might include:

tensile strength Ultimate tensile strength (also called UTS, tensile strength, TS, ultimate strength or F_\text in notation) is the maximum stress that a material can withstand while being stretched or pulled before breaking. In brittle materials, the ultimate ...

(MD and CD), elongation,

Elastic modulus An elastic modulus (also known as modulus of elasticity (MOE)) is a quantity that describes an object's or substance's resistance to being deformed elastically (i.e., non-permanently) when a stress is applied to it. Definition The elastic modu ...

surface energy In surface science, surface energy (also interfacial free energy or surface free energy) quantifies the disruption of intermolecular bonds that occurs when a surface is created. In solid-state physics, surfaces must be intrinsically less energe ...

, thickness, Moisture vapor transmission rate, Oxygen transmission rate, heat seal strength, heat sealing conditions, heat shrinking conditions, etc. Average and

process capability The process capability is a measurable property of a Process (engineering), process to the specification, expressed as a process capability index (e.g., Cpk or Cpm) or as a process performance index (e.g., Ppk or Ppm). The output of this measurem ...

are often provided. The chemical properties related for use as Food contact materials may be necessary.

Testing with people

Some types of package testing do not use scientific instruments but use people for the evaluation. The regulations for child-resistant packaging require a test protocol that involves children. Samples of the test packages are given to a prescribed population of children. With specified 50-child panels, a high percentage must be unable to open a test package within 5 minutes. Adults are also tested for their ability to open a child-resistant package. Consumer packages are often evaluated by

focus group A focus group is a group interview involving a small number (sometimes up to ten) of demographically predefined participants. Their reactions to specific researcher/evaluator-posed questions are studied. Focus groups are used in market researc ...

s. People evaluate the package features in a room monitored by video cameras. The consumer responses are treated qualitatively for feedback into the new packaging process. Some food packagers use

organoleptic Organoleptic properties are the aspects of food, water or other substances as apprehended via the senses—including taste, sight, smell, and touch. In traditional U.S. Department of Agriculture meat and poultry inspections, inspectors p ...

evaluations. People use their senses (taste, smell, etc.) to determine if a package component has tainted the food in the package. A new package may be evaluated in a

test market A test market, in the field of business and marketing, is a geographic region or demographic group used to gauge the viability of a product or service in the mass market prior to a wide scale rollout. The criteria used to judge the acceptability ...

that uses people to try the packages at home. Consumers have the opportunity to buy a product, perhaps with a coupon or discount. Return

postcard A postcard or post card is a piece of thick paper or thin cardboard, typically rectangular, intended for writing and mailing without an envelope. Non-rectangular shapes may also be used but are rare. In some places, one can send a postcard f ...

s or

Internet The Internet (or internet) is the Global network, global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to communicate between networks and devices. It is a internetworking, network of networks ...

sites provide feedback to package developers. Perhaps the most critical feedback is repeated sales items in the new package. Packaging evaluations are an important part of

marketing research Marketing research is the systematic gathering, recording, and analysis of qualitative data, qualitative and quantitative data, quantitative data about issues relating to marketing products and services. The goal is to identify and assess how chan ...

. Legibility of text on packaging and labels is always subjective due to the inherent variations of people. Efforts have been made to help better quantify this by people in a laboratory: still using people for the evaluation but also employing a test apparatus to help reduce variability. Some laboratory tests are conducted but still result in an

observation Observation in the natural sciences is an act or instance of noticing or perceiving and the acquisition of information from a primary source. In living beings, observation employs the senses. In science, observation can also involve the percep ...

by people. Some test procedures call for a judgment by test engineers whether or not pre-established acceptance criteria have been met.

Relevant standards

:ASTM D7298 Test Method for Measurement of Comparative Legibility by Means of Polarizing Filter Instrumentation. :ASTM E460 Practice for Determining Effect of Packaging on Food and Beverage Products During Storage :ASTM E619 Practice for Evaluating Foreign Odors in Paper Packaging :ASTM E1870 Test Method for Odor and Taste Transfer from Polymeric Packaging Film :ASTM 2609 Test Method for Odor and Flavor Transfer from Rigid Polymeric Packaging :ISO 16820 Sensory Analysis – Methodology – Sequential Analysis :ISO 5495 Sensory Analysis – Methodology – Paired Comparisons :ISO 13302 Sensory Analysis – Methods for assessing modifications to the flavour of foodstuffs due to packaging

Conditioning, testing atmosphere

The environmental conditions of testing are critical. The measured performance of many packages is affected by the conditioning and testing atmospheres. For example,

paper Paper is a thin sheet material produced by mechanically or chemically processing cellulose fibres derived from wood, Textile, rags, poaceae, grasses, Feces#Other uses, herbivore dung, or other vegetable sources in water. Once the water is dra ...

based products are strongly affected by their moisture content:

Relative humidity Humidity is the concentration of water vapor present in the air. Water vapor, the gaseous state of water, is generally invisible to the human eye. Humidity indicates the likelihood for precipitation (meteorology), precipitation, dew, or fog t ...

needs to be controlled. Plastic products are often strongly affected by

temperature Temperature is a physical quantity that quantitatively expresses the attribute of hotness or coldness. Temperature is measurement, measured with a thermometer. It reflects the average kinetic energy of the vibrating and colliding atoms making ...

. Conditions of 23 °C (73.4 °F) and 50% relative humidity are common but other standard testing conditions are also published in material and package test standards. Engineering tolerances for the conditions are also specified. Often the package is conditioned to the specified environment and tested under those conditions. This can be in a conditioned room or in a chamber enclosing the test. With some testing, the package is conditioned to a specified environment, then is removed to ambient conditions and quickly tested. The test report needs to state the actual conditions used. Engineers have found it important to know the effects of the full range of expected conditions on package performance. This can be through investigating published technical literature, obtaining supplier documentation, or by conducting controlled tests at diverse conditions.

Relevant standards

:ASTM D4332 - Standard Practice for Conditioning Containers, Packages, or Packaging Components for Testing :ASTM E171 - Standard Specification for Standard Atmospheres for Conditioning and Testing Flexible Barrier Materials :ASTM F2825 - Standard Practice for Climate Stressing of Packaging Systems for Single Parcel Delivery

Degradation of product

Laboratory tests can help determine the

shelf life Shelf life is the length of time that a commodity may be stored without becoming unfit for use, consumption, or sale. In other words, it might refer to whether a commodity should no longer be on a pantry shelf (unfit for use), or no longer on a s ...

of a package and its contents under a variety of conditions. This is particularly important for foods, pharmaceuticals, some chemicals, and a variety of products. The testing is usually product specific: the mechanisms of degradation are often different. Exposures to expected and elevated temperatures and humidities are commonly used for shelf life testing. The ability of packaging to control product degradation is frequently a subject of laboratory and field evaluations.

Relevant tests

:ASTM E2454 Standard Guide for Sensory Evaluation Methods to Determine the Sensory Shelf -life of Consumer Products :DoD 4140.27M Shelf Life Management Manual, 2000 :ISO 11987 Ophthalmic Optics, Contact Lenses, Determination of Shelf Life

Barrier properties

Many products degrade with exposure to the atmosphere: foods, pharmaceuticals, chemicals, etc. The ability of a package to control the

permeation In physics and engineering, permeation (also called imbuing) is the penetration of a wikt:permeate#English, permeate (a fluid such as a liquid, gas, or vapor) through a solid. It is directly related to the concentration gradient of the permeate, ...

and penetration of gasses is vital for many types of products. Tests are often conducted on the packaging materials but also on the completed packages, sometimes after being subjected to flexing, handling, vibration, or temperature.

Degradation of packages

Packages can degrade with exposure to temperature, humidity, time, sterilization (steam, radiation, gas, etc.), sunlight, and other environmental factors. For some types of packaging, it is common to test for possible

corrosion Corrosion is a natural process that converts a refined metal into a more chemically stable oxide. It is the gradual deterioration of materials (usually a metal) by chemical or electrochemical reaction with their environment. Corrosion engine ...

of metals, polymer degradation, and weather testing of polymers. Several types of accelerated aging of packaging and materials can be accomplished in a laboratory. Exposure to elevated temperatures accelerates some degradation mechanisms. An

Arrhenius equation In physical chemistry, the Arrhenius equation is a formula for the temperature dependence of reaction rates. The equation was proposed by Svante Arrhenius in 1889, based on the work of Dutch chemist Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff who had noted in 188 ...

is often used to correlate certain chemical reactions at different temperatures, based on the proper choice of Q₁₀ coefficients. As with any laboratory testing, validating field trials are important.

Relevant tests

:ASTM D3045 - Standard Practice for Heat Aging of Plastics without Load :ASTM F1640 - Standard Guide for Packaging Materials for Foods to be Irradiated :ASTM F1980 – Standard Guide for Accelerated Aging of Sterile Barrier Systems for Medical Devices :ASTM G151 - Standard Practice for Exposing Non-metallic Materials in Accelerated Test Devices that are Laboratory Light Sources

Vacuum testing

Vacuum chamber A vacuum chamber is a rigid enclosure from which air and other gases are removed by a vacuum pump. This results in a low-pressure environment within the chamber, commonly referred to as a vacuum. A vacuum environment allows researchers to c ...

s are used to test the ability of a package to withstand low pressures. This can be to: # Determine the ability of packages to withstand low pressures that might be encountered. this could be in an air shipment or high altitude truck shipment. # A laboratory vacuum places controlled stress on a sealed package to test the strength of seals, the tendency for leakage, and the ability to retain sterility.

Relevant tests

:ASTM D3078- Standard Test Method for Determination of Leaks in Flexible Packaging by Bubble Emission :ASTM D4991- Standard Test Method for Leakage Testing of Empty Rigid Containers by Vacuum Method :ASTM D6653- Standard Test Methods for Determining the Effects of High Altitude on Packaging Systems by Vacuum Method :ASTM D6834- Standard Test Method for Determining Product Leakage from a Package with a Mechanical Pump Dispenser :ASTM E493- Standard Test Methods for Leaks Using the Mass Spectrometer Leak Detector in the Inside-Out Testing Mode :ASTM F2338- Standard Test Method for Nondestructive Detection of Leaks in Packages by Vacuum Decay Method :ASTM F2391- Standard Test Method for Measuring Package and Seal Integrity Using Helium as the

Tracer Gas A tracer-gas leak testing method is a nondestructive testing method that detects gas leaks. A variety of methods with different sensitivities exist. Tracer-gas leak testing is used in the petrochemical industry, the automotive industry, the constr ...

Shock and impact

Both primary (consumer) packages and shipping containers have a risk of being dropped or being impacted by other items. Package integrity and product protection are important packaging functions. Tests are conducted to measure the resistance of packages and products to controlled laboratory shock and impact. Testing also determines the effectiveness of package

cushioning Package cushioning is used to protect items during shipment. Vibration and impact shock during shipment and loading/unloading are controlled by cushioning to reduce the chance of product damage. Cushioning is usually inside a shipping container ...

to isolate fragile products from shock.

Instrumentation Instrumentation is a collective term for measuring instruments, used for indicating, measuring, and recording physical quantities. It is also a field of study about the art and science about making measurement instruments, involving the related ...

is used to measure the shock transmitted to a cushioned product. Simple drop tests can be used for evaluations.

Relevant tests

:ASTM D880- Standard Test Method for Impact Testing for Shipping Containers and Systems :ASTM D1596- Standard Test Method for Dynamic Shock Cushioning Characteristics of Packaging Materials :ASTM D3332- Standard Test Methods for Mechanical-Shock Fragility of Products, Using Shock Machines :ASTM D4003- Standard Test Methods for Programmable Horizontal Impact Test for Shipping Containers and Systems :ASTM D5265- Standard Test Method for Bridge Impact Testing :ASTM D5276- Standard Test Method for Drop Test of Loaded Containers by Free Fall :ASTM D5277- Standard Test Method for Performing Programmed Horizontal Impacts Using an Inclined Impact Tester :ASTM D5487- Standard Test Method for Simulated Drop of Loaded Containers by Shock Machines :ASTM D6344- Standard Test Method for Concentrated Impacts to Transport Packages :ASTM D6537- Standard Practice for Instrumented Package Shock Testing For Determination of Package Performance :

MIL-STD-810 MIL-STD-810, U.S. Department of Defense Test Method Standard, Environmental Engineering Considerations and Laboratory Tests, is a United States Military Standard that specifies environmental tests to determine whether equipment is suitably desig ...

Package insulation

Many packages are used for products that are sensitive to temperature. The ability of insulated shipping containers to protect their contents from exposure to temperature fluctuations can be measured in a laboratory. The testing can be of empty containers or of full containers with appropriate jell or

ice pack An ice pack or gel pack is a portable bag filled with water, refrigerant gel, or liquid, meant to provide cooling. They can be divided into the reusable type, which works as a thermal mass and requires freezing, or the instant type, which coo ...

s, contents, etc. Ovens, freezers, and environmental chambers are commonly used for this and other types of packaging. Effects of shock and vibration on thermal performance may also be studied. Digital temperature data loggers are used to measure temperatures experienced in different distribution systems. This data is sometimes used to develop unique laboratory test methods for that distribution system.

Relevant tests

:ASTM D3103-Standard Test Method for Thermal Insulation Performance of Distribution Packages :ISTA 7E – Testing Standard for Thermal Transport Packaging Used in Parcel Delivery System Shipment

Thermal shock

Some packages, particularly glass, can be sensitive to sudden changes in temperature:

Thermal shock Thermal shock is a phenomenon characterized by a rapid change in temperature that results in a transient mechanical load on an object. The load is caused by the differential expansion of different parts of the object due to the temperature chang ...

. One method of testing involves rapid movement from cold to hot water baths, and back.

Relevant tests

:ASTM C149 -Standard Test Method for Thermal Shock Resistance of Glass Containers :

G METHOD 503.5

Handles

Package handle Package handles, or carriers, are used to help people use packaging. They are designed to simplify and to improve the ergonomics of lifting and carrying packaging, packages. Handles on consumer packages add convenience and help facilitate use an ...

s (and hand holes in packages) assist carrying and handling packages. Objective laboratory procedures are frequently used to help determine performance. Fixtured "hands" of various designs are used to hold a handle (sometimes two handles for a box). Most common are "jerk testing" by modified drop test procedures or use of the constant pull rates of a universal testing machine. Other procedures use a static force by hanging a heavily loaded package for an extended time or even using a

centrifuge A centrifuge is a device that uses centrifugal force to subject a specimen to a specified constant force - for example, to separate various components of a fluid. This is achieved by spinning the fluid at high speed within a container, thereby ...

Relevant tests

:ASTM D6804, Standard Guide for Hand Hole Design in Corrugated Boxes, Appendix :ASTM F852 Specification for Portable Gasoline, Kerosene, and Diesel Containers for Consumer Use, section 7.2 :Centrifugal test of beverage carrier handle

Vibration

Vibration Vibration () is a mechanical phenomenon whereby oscillations occur about an equilibrium point. Vibration may be deterministic if the oscillations can be characterised precisely (e.g. the periodic motion of a pendulum), or random if the os ...

is encountered during shipping (vehicle vibration, rough roads, etc.) and movement on

conveyor A conveyor system is a common piece of mechanical handling equipment that moves materials from one location to another. Conveyors are especially useful in applications involving the transport of heavy or bulky materials. Conveyor systems allow ...

s. Potential vibration damage may include: * fractures and

fatigue Fatigue is a state of tiredness (which is not sleepiness), exhaustion or loss of energy. It is a signs and symptoms, symptom of any of various diseases; it is not a disease in itself. Fatigue (in the medical sense) is sometimes associated wit ...

damage * loose wires, screw caps, etc. * bruises on soft products (fruit, etc.) * surface abrasion * etc. The ability of a package to withstand these vibrations and to protect the contents can be measured by several laboratory test procedures. Some allow searching for the particular frequencies of vibration that have potential for damage. Modal testing methodologies are sometimes employed. Others use specified bands of random vibration to better represent complex vibrations measured in field studies of distribution environments.

Relevant tests

:ASTM D999- Standard Test Methods for Vibration Testing of Shipping Containers :ASTM D3580-Standard Test Methods for Vibration (Vertical Linear Motion) Test of Products :ASTM D4728- Standard Test Method for Random Vibration Testing of Shipping Containers :ASTM D5112- Standard Test Method for Vibration (Horizontal Linear Sinusoidal Motion) Test of Products :ASTM D7387- Standard Test Method for Vibration Testing of Intermediate Bulk Containers (IBCs) Used for Shipping Liquid Hazardous Materials (Dangerous Goods)

Abrasion

Abrasion can affect several levels of packaging. Items being shipped may rub against each other or against package surfaces during shipment. Inner packages can abrade against each other, damaging graphics and bar codes. Shipping containers such as corrugated boxes can have tape and labels damaged. Several types of package vibration tests are used to help determine effects of transport vibration. Corrective action can then be taken. Separate material tests are also useful.

Relevant tests

:ASTM D4060 Standard Test Method for Abrasion Resistance of Organic Coatings by the Taber Abraser :ASTM D5181 Standard Practice for Abrasion Resistance of Printed Matter by the GA-CAT Comprehensive Abrasion Tester :ASTM D5264 Standard Practice for Abrasion Resistance of Printed Materials by the Sutherland Rub Tester :ASTM D7027 Standard Test Method for Evaluation of Scratch Resistance of Polymeric Coatings and Plastics Using an Instrumented Scratch Machine

Compression

Compression testing relates to stacking or crushing of packages, particularly shipping containers. It usually measures of the force required to crush a package, stack of packages, or a unit load. Packages can be empty or filled as for shipment. A force-deflection curve used to obtain the peak load or other desired points. Other tests use a constant load and measure the time to failure or to a critical deflection. Dynamic compression is sometimes tested by shock or impact testing with an additional load to crush the test package. Dynamic compression also takes place in stacked vibration testing.

Relevant Tests

ASTM ASTM International, formerly known as American Society for Testing and Materials, is a standards organization that develops and publishes voluntary consensus technical international standards for a wide range of materials, products, systems and s ...

Standard D642 Test Method for Determining Compressive Resistance of Shipping Containers, Components, and Unit Loads. :

Standard D4577 Test Method for Compression Resistance of a Container Under Constant Load :

Standard D7030 Test Method for Short Term Creep Performance of Corrugated Fiberboard Containers Under Constant Load Using a Compression Test Machine :German Standard

DIN DIN or Din or din may refer to: People and language * Din (name), people with the name * Dīn, an Arabic word with three general senses: judgment, custom, and religion from which the name originates * Dinka language (ISO 639 code: din), spoken ...

55440-1 Packaging Test; compression test; test with a constant conveyance-speed :

ISO The International Organization for Standardization (ISO ; ; ) is an independent, non-governmental, international standard development organization composed of representatives from the national standards organizations of member countries. Me ...

12048 Packaging—Complete, filled transport packages—Compression and stacking tests using a compression tester

Large loads

Large

pallet A pallet (also called a skid) is a flat transport structure, which supports goods in a stable fashion while being lifted by a forklift, a pallet jack, a Loader (equipment), front loader, a Jack (mechanical), jacking device, or an erect cra ...

loads,

bulk box A bulk box, also known as a bulk bin, skid box, pallet box, bin box, gaylord, or octabin, is a pallet-size box used for storage and shipping of bulk or packaged goods. Bulk boxes can be designed to hold many different types of items such as pl ...

es,

wooden box A wooden box is a container made of wood for storage or as a shipping container. Construction may include several types of wood; lumber (timber), plywood, engineered woods, etc. For some purposes, decorative woods are used. Boxes as shi ...

es, and

crate A crate is a large shipping container, often made of wood, typically used to transport or store large, heavy items. Steel and aluminium crates are also used. Specialized crates were designed for specific products, and were often made to be reus ...

s can be evaluated by many of the other test procedures previously listed. In addition, some special test methods are available for these larger loads.

Relevant tests

:ASTM D5331- Standard Test Method for Evaluation of Mechanical Handling of Unitized Loads Secured with Stretch Wrap Films :ASTM D5414- Standard Test Method for Evaluation of Horizontal Impact Performance of Load Unitizing Stretch Wrap Films :ASTM D5415- Standard Test Method for Evaluating Load Containment Performance of Stretch Wrap Films by Vibration Testing :ASTM D5416- Standard Test Method for Evaluating Abrasion Resistance of Stretch Wrap Films by Vibration Testing :ASTM D6055- Standard Test Methods for Mechanical Handling of Unitized Loads and Large Shipping Cases and Crates :ASTM D6179- Standard Test Methods for Rough Handling of Unitized Loads and Large Shipping Cases and Crates :ISO 10531- Stability testing of unit loads

Bar codes

Package bar codes are evaluated for several aspects of legibility by bar code verifiers as part of a continuing quality program. More thorough validation may include evaluations after use (and abuse) testing such as sunlight, abrasion, impact, moisture, etc.

Relevant tests

:ISO/IEC 15426 Information technology - Automatic identification and data capture techniques - Bar code verifier conformance specification - Part 1: Linear symbols, Part 2: Two-dimensional symbols

Test protocols for shipping containers

Shipping containers are often subjected to sequential tests involving a combination of individual test methods. A variety of standard test schedules or protocols are available for evaluating transport packaging. They are used to help determine the ability of complete and filled shipping containers to various types of

logistics Logistics is the part of supply chain management that deals with the efficient forward and reverse flow of goods, services, and related information from the point of origin to the Consumption (economics), point of consumption according to the ...

systems. Some test the general ruggedness of the shipping container while others have been shown to reproduce the types of damage encountered in distribution. Some base the type and severity of testing on formal studies of the distribution environment:

instrumentation Instrumentation is a collective term for measuring instruments, used for indicating, measuring, and recording physical quantities. It is also a field of study about the art and science about making measurement instruments, involving the related ...

, data loggers, and observation. Test cycles with these documented elements better simulate parts of certain logistics shipping environments. :ASTM International ::ASTM D4169- Standard Practice for Performance Testing of Shipping Containers and Systems ::ASTM D7386- Standard Practice for Performance Testing of Packages for Single Parcel Delivery Systems. :ISO ::ISO 4180:2009 Packaging – Complete filled transport packages – General rules for the compilation of performance test schedules :International Safe Transit Association :: Procedure 1A: Packaged-Products weighing 150 lb (68 kg) or Less :: Procedure 1B: Packaged-Products weighing Over 150 lb (68 kg) :: Procedure 1C: Extended Testing for Individual Packaged-Products weighing 150 lb (68 kg) or Less :: Procedure 1D: Extended Testing for Individual Packaged-Products weighing Over 150 lb (68 kg) :: Procedure 1E: Unitized Loads :: Procedure 1G: Packaged-Products weighing 150 lb (68 kg) or Less (Random Vibration) :: Procedure 1H: Packaged-Products weighing Over 150 lb (68 kg) (Random Vibration) :: Procedure 2A: Packaged-Products weighing 150 lb (68 kg) or Less :: Procedure 2B: Packaged-Products weighing over 150 lb (68 kg) :: Procedure 2C: Furniture Packages :: Procedure 3A: Packaged-Products for Parcel Delivery System Shipments 70 kg (150 lb) or Less (standard, small, flat or elongated) :: Procedure 3B: Packaged-Products for Less-Than-Truckload (LTL) Shipment :: Procedure 3E: Unitized Loads of Same Product :: Procedure 3F: Packaged Products for Distribution Center to Retail Outlet Shipment 100 lb (45 kg) :: Procedure 3H: Performance Test for Products or Packaged-Products in Mechanically Handled Bulk Transport Containers :: Project 3K: Fast Moving Consumer Goods for the European Retail Supply Chain :: Project 4AB: Enhanced Simulation Performance Tests (online test planner) :: 6-FEDEX-A: FedEx Procedures for Testing Packaged Products Weighing Up to 150 lbs :: 6-FEDEX-B: FedEx Procedures for Testing Packaged Products Weighing Over 150 lbs :: 6-SAMSCLUB, Packaged-Products for Sam's Club Distribution System Shipment :: Procedure 7D: Thermal Controlled Transport Packaging for Parcel Delivery System Shipment :: ISTA 7E: Testing Standard for Thermal Transport Packaging Used in Parcel Delivery System

Field trials

:Laboratory testing can often help identify shipping container constructions that, in general, should perform well in the field. Of course, laboratory tests cannot fully reproduce the full range of field hazards, their magnitudes, nor their frequency. Field experiments are often conducted to help validate the laboratory testing. :The advantage of laboratory testing is that it subjects replicate packages to identical sets of test sequences: a relatively small number of samples often can suffice. Field hazards, by their nature, are highly variable: thus repeated shipments do not receive the same types or magnitudes of drops, vibrations, kicks, impacts, abrasion, etc. Because of this uncontrolled variability, more replicate sample shipments are often necessary. :Larger scale test markets are used to give additional assurance of performance and acceptability for a new or revised packaged-product. Feedback is carefully obtained and evaluated. Feedback on package performance continues when full production and distribution have been achieved.

Product requirements

In addition, package testing often relates to the specific product inside the package. Some broad categories of products and special package testing considerations follow:

Food packaging

Foods categories such as fresh

produce In American English, produce generally refers to wikt:fresh, fresh List of culinary fruits, fruits and Vegetable, vegetables intended to be Eating, eaten by humans, although other food products such as Dairy product, dairy products or Nut (foo ...

frozen food Freezing food Food preservation, preserves it from the time it is prepared to the time it is eaten. Since early times, farmers, fishermen, and trappers have preserved grains and produce in unheated buildings during the winter season. Freezing foo ...

s, irradiated foods, fresh fish, canned foods, etc. have regulatory requirements and special packaging needs. Package testing often relates to: :::

Food safety Food safety (or food hygiene) is used as a scientific method/discipline describing handling, food processing, preparation, and food storage, storage of food in ways that prevent foodborne illness. The occurrence of two or more cases of a simi ...

:::Compatibility of the package with the food :::Migration of material from the packaging to the food :::Shelf life :::Barrier properties, porosity, package atmosphere, etc :::Special quality assurance needs,

good manufacturing practice Current good manufacturing practices (cGMP) are those conforming to the guidelines recommended by relevant agencies. Those agencies control the authorization and licensing of the manufacture and sale of food and beverages, cosmetics, pharmaceutic ...

s, HACCP, validation protocols, etc

Pharmaceutical packaging

Packaging for drugs and

s is highly regulated. Special testing needs include: :::Safety of drugs and pharmaceuticals :::Barrier properties :::Shelf life :::Compatibility of package with the drugs :::Sterility :::Tamper resistance, child resistance, etc :::Special quality assurance needs, good manufacturing practices, validation protocols, etc

Medical packaging

Packaging for medical materials,

medical devices A medical device is any device intended to be used for medical purposes. Significant potential for hazards are inherent when using a device for medical purposes and thus medical devices must be proved safe and effective with reasonable assura ...

health care Health care, or healthcare, is the improvement or maintenance of health via the preventive healthcare, prevention, diagnosis, therapy, treatment, wikt:amelioration, amelioration or cure of disease, illness, injury, and other disability, physic ...

supplies, etc., have special user requirements and is highly regulated. Barrier properties, durability, visibility, sterility and strength need to be controlled; usually with documented test results for initial designs and for production. Assurance of sterility and suitability for use are critical. For example, medical devices and products are often sterilized in the package. The sterility must be maintained throughout distribution to allow immediate use by physicians. A series of special packaging tests is used to measure the ability of the package to maintain sterility.

Verification and validation Verification and validation (also abbreviated as V&V) are independent procedures that are used together for checking that a product, service, or system meets requirements and specification (technical standard), specifications and that it fulf ...

protocols are rigidly maintained. ::Relevant standards :::ASTM F88/F88M - Standard Test Method for Seal Strength of Flexible Barrier Materials :::ASTM F1585 – Guide for Integrity Testing of Porous Medical Packages :::ASTM D3078 – Standard Test Method for Detection of Leaks in Flexible Packaging (Bubble) :::ASTM F1140 – Standard Test Methods for Internal Pressurization Failure Resistance of Unrestrained Packages :::ASTM F1608 – Standard Test Method for Microbial Ranking of Packaging Materials :::ASTM F1929 – Standard Test Method for Detecting Seal Strength in Porous Medical Packaging by Dye Penetration :::ASTM F1980 – Standard Guide for Accelerated Aging of Sterile Barrier Systems for Medical Devices :::ASTM F2054 – Standard Test Method for Burst Testing of Flexible Package Seals Using Internal Air Pressurization Within Restraining Plates :::ASTM F2095 – Standard Test Methods for Pressure Decay Leak Test for Flexible Packages With and Without Restraining Plates :::ASTM F2096 – Standard Test Method for Detecting Gross Leaks in Medical Packaging by Internal Pressurization :::ASTM F2097 – Standard Guide for Design and Evaluation of Primary Flexible Packaging for Medical Products :::ASTM F2228 – Standard Test Method for Non-Destructive Detection of Leaks in Medical Packaging Which Incorporates Pourous Barrier Material by CO2 Tracer Gas :::ASTM F2391 – Standard Test Method for Measuring Package and Seal Integrity using Helium as the Tracer Gas :::ASTM F3039 - Standard Test Method for Detecting Leaks in Nonporous Packaging or Flexible Barrier Materials by Dye Penetration :::EN 868-1 – Packaging materials and systems for medical devices which are to be sterilized. General requirements and test methods (superseded by ISO 11607-1) :::EN 868-5 – Packaging for terminally sterilized medical devices. Part 5: Sealable pouches and reels of porous materials and plastic film construction - Requirements and test methods. (Per ISO 11607-1, Annex B, Table B.1, this method maybe used to demonstrate conformity with provisions of ISO 11607-1) :::ISO 11607-1 – Packaging for terminally sterilized medical devices -- Part 1: Requirements for materials, sterile barrier systems and packaging systems :::ISO 11607-2 – Packaging for terminally sterilized medical devices -- Part 2: Validation for Forming, Sealing, and Assembly Processes

Dangerous Goods

Packaging of hazardous materials, or dangerous goods, are highly regulated. There are some material and construction requirements but also performance testing is required. The testing is based on the packing group (hazard level) of the contents, the quantity of material, and the type of container. Research into improvements is continuing. :::Relevant standards :::ASTM D4919- Standard Specification for Testing of Hazardous Materials Packaging :::ASTM D7387- Standard Test Method for Vibration Testing of Intermediate Bulk Containers (IBCs) Used for Shipping Liquid Hazardous Materials (Dangerous Goods) :::ASTM D7760 Standard Guide for Conducting Internal Pressure Tests on United Nations (UN) Packagings :::ASTM D7887 Standard Guide for Selection of Substitute, Non-hazardous, Liquid Filling Substances for Packagings Subjected to the United Nations Performance Tests :::ASTM D7790: Standard Guide for Preparation of Plastic Packagings Containing Liquids for United Nations (UN) Drop Testing ::: UN Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods :::ISO 16104 – 2003 Packaging – Transport packaging for dangerous goods – Test methods

References

Books, General References

* ASTM STP 1294 Durability Testing of Nonmetallic Materials, 1996 * Lockhart, H., and Paine, F.A., "Packaging of Pharmaceuticals and Healthcare Products", 2006, Blackie, * Meisner, "Transport Packaging", Third Edition, IoPP, 2016 * Pilchik, R., "Validating Medical Packaging" 2002, * Robertson, G. L., "Food Packaging", 2005, * Russel, P G, and Daum, M P, "Product Protection Test Book", IoPP * Soroka, W, "Fundamentals of Packaging Technology", IoPP, 2002, * Yam, K. L., "Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology", John Wiley & Sons, 2009,
Guidelines for Selecting and Using ISTA Procedures and Projects
ISTA, 2013

External links

Institute of Packaging ProfessionalsInternational Safe Transit Association (ISTA)
*Safe Load Testing Technologies
'All you need to know about Amazon ISTA Test'
2018 *Test Method Validation, Westpak, 20

{{Product testing Packaging Industrial engineering Environmental testing Product testing

Purposes

Importance

Laboratory affiliation

Procedures

Materials testing

Testing with people

Relevant standards

Conditioning, testing atmosphere

Relevant standards

Degradation of product

Relevant tests

Barrier properties

Degradation of packages

Relevant tests

Vacuum testing

Relevant tests

Shock and impact

Relevant tests

Package insulation

Relevant tests

Thermal shock

Relevant tests

Handles

Relevant tests

Vibration

Relevant tests

Abrasion

Relevant tests

Compression

Relevant Tests

Large loads

Relevant tests

Bar codes

Relevant tests

Test protocols for shipping containers

Field trials

Product requirements

Food packaging

Pharmaceutical packaging

Medical packaging

Dangerous Goods

See also

References

Books, General References

External links