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Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...
abstract term which has a variety of meanings, including
leisure Leisure (, ) has often been defined as a quality of experience or as free time. Free time is time spent away from business, Employment, work, job hunting, Housekeeping, domestic chores, and education, as well as necessary activities such as ...
time for "
self-realization Self-realization is a term used in Western philosophy, psychology, and spirituality; and in Indian religions. In the Western understanding, it is the "fulfillment by oneself of the possibilities of one's character or personality" (see also ...
activities" such as
eating Eating (also known as consuming) is the ingestion of food. In biology, this is typically done to provide a heterotrophic organism with energy and nutrients and to allow for growth. Animals and other heterotrophs must eat in order to survive – ...
, playing, relaxing,
contemplation In a religious context, the practice of contemplation seeks a direct awareness of the Divinity, divine which Transcendence (religion), transcends the intellect, often in accordance with religious practices such as meditation or contemplative pr ...
, and
academic An academy (Attic Greek: Ἀκαδήμεια; Koine Greek Ἀκαδημία) is an institution of tertiary education. The name traces back to Plato's school of philosophy, founded approximately 386 BC at Akademia, a sanctuary of Athena, the go ...
endeavors. It sometimes relates to a time in a person's
retirement Retirement is the withdrawal from one's position or occupation or from one's active working life. A person may also semi-retire by reducing work hours or workload. Many people choose to retire when they are elderly or incapable of doing their j ...
after previous service to the public or private sector, as opposed to "active public life" (the negative ''negotium'' meaning "busy-ness"). ''Otium'' can be a temporary or sporadic time of leisure. It can have intellectual, virtuous, or immoral implications. The concept originally expressed the idea of withdrawing from one's daily business or affairs to engage in activities that were considered to be artistically valuable or enlightening (i.e., speaking, writing, philosophy), and had particular meaning to businessmen, diplomats, philosophers, and poets.


Early usage

In ancient Roman culture ''otium'' was a military concept as its first Latin usage. This was in
Ennius Quintus Ennius (; ) was a writer and poet who lived during the Roman Republic. He is often considered the father of Roman poetry. He was born in the small town of Rudiae, located near modern Lecce (ancient ''Calabria'', today Salento), a town ...
's ''Iphigenia''. According to historian Carl Deroux in his work ''Studies in Latin literature and Roman history'', the word ''otium'' appears for the first time in a chorus of Ennius's ''Iphigenia''. Ennius' first use of the term ''otium'' around 190 BC showed the restlessness and boredom during a reprieve from war and was termed ''otium negotiosum'' (free time to do what one wanted) and ''otium otiosum'' (idle wasteless free time).
Leisure, Idleness and Virtuous Activity in Shakespearean Drama
'' by Unhae Langis, p. 2
Aulus Gellius Aulus Gellius (c. 125after 180 AD) was a Roman author and grammarian, who was probably born and certainly brought up in Rome. He was educated in Athens, after which he returned to Rome. He is famous for his ''Attic Nights'', a commonplace book, ...
, while discussing the word ''praeterpropter'' ("more or less") quotes a fragment of Ennius's ''Iphigenia'', which contrasts ''otium'' with ''negotium'' repeatedly.Aulus Gellius, ''Noctes Atticae''
19, 10
For this fragment as the first instance of ''otium'' in the extant literature, see Eleanor Winsor Leach, "''Otium'' as ''Luxuria'': Economy of Status in the Younger Pliny's ''Letters''," ''Arethusa'' 36 (2003), p. 148.
Ennius imagined the emotions of Agamemnon's soldiers at Aulus, that while in the field and not at war and not allowed to go home, as "more or less" ''living''. The earliest extant appearance of the word in
Latin literature Latin literature includes the essays, histories, poems, plays, and other writings written in the Latin language. The beginning of formal Latin literature dates to 240 BC, when the first stage play in Latin was performed in Rome. Latin literatur ...
occurs in a fragment from the soldiers' chorus in the ''Iphigenia'' of
Ennius Quintus Ennius (; ) was a writer and poet who lived during the Roman Republic. He is often considered the father of Roman poetry. He was born in the small town of Rudiae, located near modern Lecce (ancient ''Calabria'', today Salento), a town ...
, where it is contrasted to .Ennius, frg. XCIX in the edition of Jocelyn, ''otio qui nescit uti , plus negoti habet quam cum est negotium in negotio'', rendered by Jocelyn: "the man who has no job to do and does not know how to employ the resulting leisure has more difficulty than when there is difficulty in a job on hand". For this fragment as the first instance of in the extant literature, see Eleanor Winsor Leach, "''Otium'' as ''Luxuria'': Economy of Status in the Younger Pliny's ''Letters''", ''Arethusa'' 36 (2003), p. 148. Researchers have determined the etymological and semantic use of was never a direct translation of the Greek word "schole", but derived from specifically Roman contexts. is an example of the usage of the term "praeterpropter", meaning more or less of leisure. It was first used in military terms related to inactivity during war. In ancient Roman times soldiers were many times unoccupied, resting and bored to death when not at war (i.e., winter months, weather not permitting war). This was associated with (unoccupied and pointless leisure – idle leisure). The opposite of this was (busy leisure) – leisure with a satisfying
hobby A hobby is considered to be a regular activity that is done for enjoyment, typically during one's leisure time. Hobbies include collecting themed items and objects, engaging in creative and artistic pursuits, playing sports, or pursuing other ...
or being able to take care of one's personal affairs or one's own estate. This was (private leisure), equal to (a type of business). The oldest citation for ''otium'' is this chorus of soldiers, singing about idleness on campaign, in an otherwise lost Latin tragedy by Ennius. Andre shows in these lines that Ennius is showing the soldiers in the field would rather go home tending to their own affairs () than to be idle doing nothing. Its military origin meant to stop fighting in battle and lay down weapons – a time for peace. Even though originally was a military concept in early Roman culture of laying down one's weapons, it later became an elite prestigious time for caring for oneself. The ancient Romans had a sense of obligatory work ethics in their culture and considered the idle-leisure definition of as a waste of time. Historians of ancient Roman considered a time of laborious leisure of much personal duties instead of public duties. Author Almasi shows that historians Jean-Marie Andre and
Brian Vickers Brian Lee Vickers (born October 24, 1983) is an American former professional stock car and sports car racing driver. He last drove the No. 14 Chevrolet SS for Stewart-Haas Racing as an interim driver in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series for the i ...
point out the only legitimate form of was transpired with intellectual activity. was thought of by the wise elite as being free from work and other obligations () and leisure time spent on productive activities, however a time that should not be wasted as was thought the non-elite did with their leisure time.


Greek philosophers

The favorable sense of ''otium'' in
Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, orator, writer and Academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises tha ...
nian Latin reflects the Greek term (''skholē'', "leisure", a meaning retained in
Modern Greek Modern Greek (, or , ), generally referred to by speakers simply as Greek (, ), refers collectively to the dialects of the Greek language spoken in the modern era, including the official standardized form of the language sometimes referred to ...
as σχόλη, ''schólē''); "leisure" having a complex history in Greek philosophy before being used in Latin (through Latin the word became the root of many education-related English terms, such as school, scholar and scholastic). In Athens, leisure was one of the marks of the Athenian gentleman: the time to do things right, unhurried time, time to discuss in. From there it became "discussion", and from there, philosophical and educational schools, which were both conducted by discussion. Four major Greek philosophical schools influenced the Roman gentlemen of Cicero's time.
Plato Plato ( ; Greek language, Greek: , ; born  BC, died 348/347 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher of the Classical Greece, Classical period who is considered a foundational thinker in Western philosophy and an innovator of the writte ...
(and his contemporaries, if the '' Greater Hippias'' be not authentic) brought ''schole'' into philosophy; as often, Plato can be quoted on both sides of the question whether leisure is better than the business of a citizen. In the ''Greater Hippias'', it is one weakness of the title character that, although he has the education and manners of a gentleman, he has no leisure; but
Socrates Socrates (; ; – 399 BC) was a Ancient Greek philosophy, Greek philosopher from Classical Athens, Athens who is credited as the founder of Western philosophy and as among the first moral philosophers of the Ethics, ethical tradition ...
, in the ''
Apology Apology, The Apology, apologize/apologise, apologist, apologetics, or apologetic may refer to: Common uses * Apology (act), an expression of remorse or regret * Apologia, a formal defense of an opinion, position, or action Arts, entertainment ...
'', has no leisure either; he is too busy as a gad-fly, keeping his fellow Athenians awake to virtue. However, by the time the Romans encountered Plato's school, the
Academy An academy (Attic Greek: Ἀκαδήμεια; Koine Greek Ἀκαδημία) is an institution of tertiary education. The name traces back to Plato's school of philosophy, founded approximately 386 BC at Akademia, a sanctuary of Athena, the go ...
, they had largely ceased to discuss anything so practical as the good life; the
New Academy The Academy (), variously known as Plato's Academy, or the Platonic Academy, was founded in Athens by Plato ''circa'' 387 BC. The academy is regarded as the first institution of higher education in the west, where subjects as diverse as biolog ...
of
Carneades Carneades (; , ''Karneadēs'', "of Carnea"; 214/3–129/8 BC) was a Greek philosopher, perhaps the most prominent head of the Skeptical Academy in Ancient Greece. He was born in Cyrene. By the year 159 BC, he had begun to attack many previo ...
practiced verbal agility and boundless skepticism.
Theophrastus Theophrastus (; ; c. 371 – c. 287 BC) was an ancient Greek Philosophy, philosopher and Natural history, naturalist. A native of Eresos in Lesbos, he was Aristotle's close colleague and successor as head of the Lyceum (classical), Lyceum, the ...
and
Dicaearchus Dicaearchus of Messana (; ''Dikaiarkhos''; ), also written Dikaiarchos (), was a Greek philosopher, geographer and author. Dicaearchus was a student of Aristotle in the Lyceum. Very little of his work remains extant. He wrote on geography and t ...
, students of
Aristotle Aristotle (; 384–322 BC) was an Ancient Greek philosophy, Ancient Greek philosopher and polymath. His writings cover a broad range of subjects spanning the natural sciences, philosophy, linguistics, economics, politics, psychology, a ...
, debated much on the contemplative life and the active life. Roman
Epicureans Epicureanism is a system of philosophy founded 307 BCE based upon the teachings of Epicurus, an ancient Greek philosopher. Epicurus was an atomist and materialist, following in the steps of Democritus. His materialism led him to religious s ...
used for the quiet bliss promised by Epicurus. An Epicurean proverb The phrase "to be at ease" can have the meaning "to be of good cheer" or "to be without fear" these being interdependent. The Epicurean idea of favors contemplation, compassion, gratitude and friendship. The Epicurean view is that wisdom has as much to contribute to the benefit of the public as does that of contributions of politicians and laborers (i.e., sailors). The rustic concept incorporates country living into
Epicureanism Epicureanism is a system of philosophy founded 307 BCE based upon the teachings of Epicurus, an ancient Greek philosopher. Epicurus was an atomist and materialist, following in the steps of Democritus. His materialism led him to religious s ...
. The active city public life of and an of reserved country life of reflection have been much written about by
Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, orator, writer and Academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises tha ...
and
Seneca the Younger Lucius Annaeus Seneca the Younger ( ; AD 65), usually known mononymously as Seneca, was a Stoicism, Stoic philosopher of Ancient Rome, a statesman, a dramatist, and in one work, a satirist, from the post-Augustan age of Latin literature. Seneca ...
.
Epicurus Epicurus (, ; ; 341–270 BC) was an Greek philosophy, ancient Greek philosopher who founded Epicureanism, a highly influential school of philosophy that asserted that philosophy's purpose is to attain as well as to help others attain tranqui ...
's philosophy was contrary to Hellenistic Stoicism. Epicurus promised enjoyment in retirement as a concept of . The concept of the Epicurean (private world of leisure) and the contemplative life were represented in Epicurus' school of philosophy and his garden. The portraits of the Garden of Epicurus near Athens represented political and cultural heroes of the time. Twenty-first–century historians Gregory Warden and David Romano have argued that the layout of the sculptures in "The Garden" were designed to give the viewer contrasting viewpoints of the Epicurean and the Hellenistic Stoic viewpoint of (''i.e.'' private or public; contemplation or "employment"; or ).


Roman Republic

In early and colloquial Latin, despite the etymological contrast, is often used pejoratively, in contrast rather to , "office, duty" than to ('business"). There was a difference established in ancient Roman times (second century BCE and forward) developing the idea elite social status was when one fulfilled one's duties in business and then meant "leisure" while meant "non-leisure" (work duties still needed to be done). This new time of was filled by Greek scholarly pursuits and Greek pleasures. The time environment within which a person existed had sides to it that were filled with Greek customs such as pastimes, hobbies, interchanges of thoughts and ideas, and private bathing. and was then a new social concept which has perpetuated to our own time. Historian J. M. Andre concludes that the original sense of was related to military service and the idleness that happened in the winter, as opposed to the business () of the rest of the year. The most ancient Roman calendar divided the year into ten months devoted to war and farming, leaving the winter months of January and February vacant for individual . Andre shows that the beauty of the individual ''otium'' poses rest.
Titus Maccius Plautus Titus Maccius Plautus ( ; 254 – 184 BC) was a Roman playwright of the Old Latin period. His comedies are the earliest Latin literary works to have survived in their entirety. He wrote Palliata comoedia, the genre devised by Livius Andronic ...
in his play '' Mercator'' says that while you are young is the time to save up for your retirement otium so you can enjoy it later, in his claim ''tum in otium te conloces, dum potes, ames'' (then you may set yourself at your ease, drink and be amorous).
Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, orator, writer and Academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises tha ...
speaks of himself, with the expression ''otium cum dignitate'', that time spent in activities one prefers is suitable for a Roman citizen who has retired from public life. When he was ousted from each office, this forced an inactive period, which he used for "worthy leisure". During this time he composed , a series of books on
Stoic Stoic may refer to: * An adherent of Stoicism Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy that flourished in ancient Greece and Rome. The Stoics believed that the universe operated according to reason, ''i.e.'' by a God which is immersed i ...
philosophy Philosophy ('love of wisdom' in Ancient Greek) is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like existence, reason, knowledge, Value (ethics and social sciences), value, mind, and language. It is a rational an ...
. Cicero saw free time as a time to devote to writing. Cicero defines as leisure, avoiding active participation in politics. He further defines it as a state of security and peace (pax) – a type of "public health". It is often associated with tranquillity. Cicero advises in his third book ''On Duties'' that when the city life becomes too much, one should retreat to the country for leisure. The term in Cicero's was to mean peace (pax) for all and distinction for some. Cicero says in ''Pro Sestio'', XLV., 98 Cicero explains that, while not necessarily his cup of tea, he recognized many different ways to spend leisure time and . In one passage of he explains that
Philistus Philistus (; 432 – 356 BC), son of Archomenidas, was a Greek historian from Sicily, Magna Graecia. Life Philistus was born in Syracuse around the time the Peloponnesian War began. He was a faithful supporter of the elder Dionysius, and c ...
spent his retirement writing history as his . He goes on to say in Book iii that other men passed their of leisure due to bad weather that prevented them from doing their daily chores to playing ball,
knucklebones Knucklebones, also known as scatter jacks, snobs, astragaloi (''singular'': astragalus), tali, dibs, fivestones, jacks, jackstones, or jinks, among many other names, is a game of Fine motor skill, dexterity played with a number of small objects ...
, dice games or just games they made up. Others that were "retired" from public life for whatever reason devoted their (leisure with service) to poetry, mathematics, music and teaching children. German historian
Klaus Bringmann Klaus Bringmann (28 May 1936 – 14 July 2021Uwe Walter, ''Sinn fürs Wesentliche – Zum Tod von Klaus Bringmann'', In: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung The (; ''FAZ''; "Frankfurt General Newspaper") is a German newspaper founded in 1949. It ...
shows in Cicero's works that one can not characterize him as a hypocrite while in ''otium'' because of his sense of duty to serve the state. Cicero's concept of does not mean selfish pursuit of pleasure. It means the well-earned leisure which is a culmination of a long career of action and achievement. It's a reward. Idleness () had derogatory implications and unqualified was a problem for Cicero's elite group of followers. Its break away from civic affairs contrasted with , participation in civic affairs of the republican aristocracy. To distinguish between plain "idleness" and aristocratic ''otium homestum'', ''otium liberale'' or ''otium cum dignitate'', writers of the day said that literary and philosophical pursuits were worthwhile activities and that they had benefit to ''res publica'' (the general public). These pursuits were a type of 'employment' and therefore not mere laziness. Cicero praises
Cato the Elder Marcus Porcius Cato (, ; 234–149 BC), also known as Cato the Censor (), the Elder and the Wise, was a Roman soldier, Roman Senate, senator, and Roman historiography, historian known for his conservatism and opposition to Hellenization. He wa ...
for his respectful use of in his expression ("no less for doing nothing than business"). Cicero was associating with writing and thinking when he admires Cato for pointing out that
Scipio Africanus Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus (, , ; 236/235–) was a Roman general and statesman who was one of the main architects of Rome's victory against Ancient Carthage, Carthage in the Second Punic War. Often regarded as one of the greatest milit ...
claimed he was "never less idle than when he was at leisure, and never less lonely than when he was alone." Cicero in his (book III, 1–4) further says of Scipio Africanus "Leisure and solitude, which serve to make others idle, in Scipio's case acted as a
goad The goad is a traditional farming implement, used to spur or guide livestock, usually oxen, which are pulling a plow or a cart; used also to round up cattle. It is a type of long stick with a pointed end, also known as the cattle prod. The ...
." Cicero's idea of ("leisure with dignity") is considerably different from today's version of the concept. In his time, this kind of "free time" was only for the few privileged elite and was mostly made possible by the toil of slaves. It was associated with an egotistic and arrogant lifestyle, compared to those who had to earn their own living with no slaves. Today technology and educational systems enter into the equation on making leisure time () available to almost everyone, not just the privileged elite, which enables the pursuit of
hobbies A hobby is considered to be a regular activity that is done for enjoyment, typically during one's leisure time. Hobbies include collecting themed items and objects, engaging in creative and artistic pursuits, playing sports, or pursuing other ...
. Cicero has a number of different concept versions for . In one concept he feels that a lifetime of loyalty attending one's duty () should be rewarded with some form of retirement. This then promotes great sacrifices which promotes civic peace with honor within the state. He points out that the tranquillity one enjoys is due to the efforts of the majority. This concept of retirement through a lifetime of work was enjoyed only by the ruling class and the elite. The common people could only hope to enjoy a leisurely retirement with dignity as an inheritance.
Catullus Gaius Valerius Catullus (; ), known as Catullus (), was a Latin neoteric poet of the late Roman Republic. His surviving works remain widely read due to their popularity as teaching tools and because of their personal or sexual themes. Life ...
, a late
Roman Republic The Roman Republic ( ) was the era of Ancient Rome, classical Roman civilisation beginning with Overthrow of the Roman monarchy, the overthrow of the Roman Kingdom (traditionally dated to 509 BC) and ending in 27 BC with the establis ...
poet, in his poems shows that the significance of of the middle Republican time of
autonomy In developmental psychology and moral, political, and bioethical philosophy, autonomy is the capacity to make an informed, uncoerced decision. Autonomous organizations or institutions are independent or self-governing. Autonomy can also be ...
into the concept of how, why, and when a member of the patronal class might exchange political activity for literary leisure. He tended to mark with erotic influence.


Imperial Rome

The imperial dictatorship by
Augustus Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian (), was the founder of the Roman Empire, who reigned as the first Roman emperor from 27 BC until his death in A ...
during the fall of the
Roman Republic The Roman Republic ( ) was the era of Ancient Rome, classical Roman civilisation beginning with Overthrow of the Roman monarchy, the overthrow of the Roman Kingdom (traditionally dated to 509 BC) and ending in 27 BC with the establis ...
put the Roman ruling classes into a state of change as their traditional role as always being in town was no longer needed. They were given much leisure time () because of their wealth. The wives of wealthy men were known to write poetry in special rooms devoted to education of the entire family (except the master of the house as it would have been below his dignity). The home of choice then became the countryside
villa A villa is a type of house that was originally an ancient Roman upper class country house that provided an escape from urban life. Since its origins in the Roman villa, the idea and function of a villa have evolved considerably. After the f ...
as the rise of the
Roman Empire The Roman Empire ruled the Mediterranean and much of Europe, Western Asia and North Africa. The Roman people, Romans conquered most of this during the Roman Republic, Republic, and it was ruled by emperors following Octavian's assumption of ...
made some Romans even wealthier. Some, especially among the large and middle class Roman landowners, could afford almost anything they could dream up in the way of a residence. Greek-style architecture became their new villa otium outside of town. In ancient Roman times the "otium villa" was a
Dionysian The Apollonian and the Dionysian are philosophical and literary concepts represented by a duality between the figures of Apollo and Dionysus from Greek mythology. Its popularization is widely attributed to the work ''The Birth of Tragedy'' by Fri ...
idealistic rural home setting that evoked peace, leisure, simplicity and serenity. Often in ancient writings is found the mention of restorative powers due its natural setting () in the rural country home, contrasted to the busy city life with all the businesses (). The "villa with a garden" and "villa by the sea" was associated with . The life at the Roman villa was associated with Greek culture in rooms which had Greek themes indicating a "superior world" of living. The Imperial Roman poet
Statius Publius Papinius Statius (Greek language, Greek: Πόπλιος Παπίνιος Στάτιος; , ; ) was a Latin poetry, Latin poet of the 1st century CE. His surviving poetry includes an epic in twelve books, the ''Thebaid (Latin poem), Theb ...
writes of an "otium villa" that he planned to retire to in Naples in his work ''
Silvae The is a collection of Latin occasional poetry in hexameters, hendecasyllables, and lyric meters by Publius Papinius Statius (c. 45 – c. 96 CE). There are 32 poems in the collection, divided into five books. Each book contains a prose pref ...
'': "It has secure peace, an idle life of leisure, non-troubled rest and sleep. There is no madness in the market-place, no strict laws in dispute ...".
Pliny the Younger Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus (born Gaius Caecilius or Gaius Caecilius Cilo; 61 – ), better known in English as Pliny the Younger ( ), was a lawyer, author, and magistrate of Ancient Rome. Pliny's uncle, Pliny the Elder, helped raise and e ...
exemplified the philosophy of the Roman elite in of the time by the life he lived from his "otium villas". He would dictate letters to his secretary, read Greek and Latin speeches, go on walks on the villa's grounds, dine and socialize with friends, meditate, exercise, bathe, take naps and occasionally hunt.
Tibullus Albius Tibullus ( BC BC) was a Latin poet and writer of elegies. His first and second books of poetry are extant; many other texts attributed to him are of questionable origins. Little is known about the life of Tibullus. There are only a few r ...
was an Augustan
elegiac The adjective ''elegiac'' has two possible meanings. First, it can refer to something of, relating to, or involving, an elegy or something that expresses similar mournfulness or sorrow. Second, it can refer more specifically to poetry composed in ...
poet who offered an alternative lifestyle to the Roman ideal of the military man or the man of action. He preferred the country lifestyle. In his existing first two books of poetry he compares the lifestyle of his chief friend and patron Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus as a commander and soldier to that of a farmer. Tibullus in his poem 1.3 rejects the work style of the rich man, , and military service (). He shows in his poetry that originally was a military concept, the disuse of one's weapons. Tibullus prefers the rustic agricultural landscape and a simple life. He indicates that while he would do agricultural work, he would only be interested in doing it sometimes () and therefore inserts (peace and leisure time) into agricultural life. He expresses in his attitude of his poetry that the qualities of the Epicurean resolve to quietism (occultism – religious mysticism) and pacifism (abstention from violence) as the pursuits of (mean leisure) – peace of mind (peace with one's self) and detachment from worldly ambitions. Seneca compares the difference in the Epicurean and Stoic choice of . He confesses that classic Stoicism urges active public life while Epicurus has a tendency not to advance public life unless forced to. Seneca views
Stoicism Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy that flourished in ancient Greece and Rome. The Stoics believed that the universe operated according to reason, ''i.e.'' by a God which is immersed in nature itself. Of all the schools of ancient ...
and
Epicureanism Epicureanism is a system of philosophy founded 307 BCE based upon the teachings of Epicurus, an ancient Greek philosopher. Epicurus was an atomist and materialist, following in the steps of Democritus. His materialism led him to religious s ...
as legitimate to inaction in the proper situations. He defends the Stoic philosophy as leaning toward . The main responsibility for the Stoic is to benefit the public in some manner. This could be done by the cultivation of virtue or the research of nature in retirement. This would mean a life of meditation and contemplation rather than an active political life. Seneca shows that is not really "free time", but a study of other matters (i.e., reading, writing) other than political and career gains. Retirees retreating to rural villas increased as writers of the day wrote that Stoic ways included pursuits of reading, writing and philosophy. This meant that the work of public duties was replaced by ''otium liberale'' (liberal leisure) and was sanctified if the retiree did pursuits of reading, writing and philosophy. The benefits of the simplicity of rustic country life was reinforced in the intellectual legitimacy of (rural leisure) because it drew out the spiritual implications of Horatian and Vergilian images of this type of life. Seneca's doctrine of describes retirement from public life. The contemplative life that Seneca revised was a Roman debate on (a productive peaceful time) and at some point in the evolution of the term was later contrasted to . These are some of the elements in Seneca's doctrine of : # virtue, freedom and happiness by reasoning. # the military metaphor. # that the virtuous person chooses , a specific place for doing one's 'employment'. # ''otium'' (leisure) is still (business) even if withdrawal from public activity. # that the virtuous person's , as a citizen of the universe, is the field for the performance of his duty.


Later writers

While Seneca's doctrine appears to be close to the doctrine of Athenodorus's it is basically different. In ''De Otio 3.5'' Seneca points out the benefits towards man in general, while in the theme is peace of mind. Saint Augustine of Hippo reminded Romans of , a positive element, that life was happiest when one had time to philosophize. Augustine points out that was the prerequisite for contemplation. It was because of that
Alypius of Thagaste Alypius of Thagaste was bishop of the see of Thagaste (in present-day Algeria) in 394. He was a lifelong friend of Augustine of Hippo and joined him in his conversion (in 386; ''Confessions'' 8.12.28) and life in Christianity. He is credited wi ...
steered Augustine away from marriage. He said that they could not live a life together in the love of wisdom if he married. Augustine described as the Christian life of leisure. Many Christian writers of the time interpreted the Roman idea of as the deadly sin of acedia (sloth). Some Christian writers formulated as meaning to serve God through deep thought. Christian writers encouraged biblical studies to justify . These same Christian writers also showed ''otium ruris'' (secluded rural leisure) as a needed step to monastic . Augustine describes the monastic life as ''otium sanctum'' (sanctified leisure or approved leisure). In Augustine's time the idea of philosophy had two poles of ambitions – one to be a worthy Christian (vacation – ''negotium'') and the other to be a worthy friend of God (devotion – ).Prosperetti, p. 48
Petrarch Francis Petrarch (; 20 July 1304 – 19 July 1374; ; modern ), born Francesco di Petracco, was a scholar from Arezzo and poet of the early Italian Renaissance, as well as one of the earliest Renaissance humanism, humanists. Petrarch's redis ...
, 14th-century poet and Renaissance humanist, discusses in his as it relates to a human life of simple habits and self-restraint. Like his favorite Roman authors Cicero, Horace, Seneca, Ovid and Livy, he sees not as leisure time devoted to idleness, passion, entertainment or mischievous wrongdoing; but time ideally spent on nature appreciation, serious research, meditation, contemplation, writing and friendship. Petrarch considered solitude (i.e., rural setting, "villa otium", his Vaucluse home) and its relationship to as a great possession for a chance at intellectual activity, the same philosophy as Cicero and Seneca. He would share such a precious commodity with his best friends in the spirit of Seneca when he said "no good thing is pleasant to possess without friends to share it". Historian Julia Bondanella translates Petrarch's Latin words of his own personal definition of : Petrarch stressed the idea of an active mind even in (leisure). He refers back to Augustine's in ''De otio religioso'' where in
Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion, which states that Jesus in Christianity, Jesus is the Son of God (Christianity), Son of God and Resurrection of Jesus, rose from the dead after his Crucifixion of Jesus, crucifixion, whose ...
it was associated with contemplation and (vacate – be still). He points out that this is associated with (to see), which in Christianity is physical and mental activity aimed at moral perfection. He relates this concept of as (be still and see – a form of
meditation Meditation is a practice in which an individual uses a technique to train attention and awareness and detach from reflexive, "discursive thinking", achieving a mentally clear and emotionally calm and stable state, while not judging the meditat ...
, contemplation). Petrarch points out that one should not take leisure as so relaxed as to weaken the mind, but to be active in leisure to build up strength in the view of a unique character and religion.
Andrew Marvell Andrew Marvell (; 31 March 1621 – 16 August 1678) was an English metaphysical poet, satirist and politician who sat in the House of Commons at various times between 1659 and 1678. During the Commonwealth period he was a colleague and friend ...
's seventeenth-century poem The Garden is a
lyric Lyric may refer to: * Lyrics, the words, often in verse form, which are sung, usually to a melody, and constitute the semantic content of a song * Lyric poetry is a form of poetry that expresses a subjective, personal point of view * Lyric, from t ...
of nine
stanzas In poetry, a stanza (; from Italian ''stanza'', ; ) is a group of lines within a poem, usually set off from others by a blank line or indentation. Stanzas can have regular rhyme and metrical schemes, but they are not required to have either. ...
in which he rejects all forms of activity in the world in favor of solitude of the retiree in a garden. It is a type of retirement poem expressing the love of retirementan ancient Roman concept related to . The poem shows the high degree of pleasure of rural retirement. Some critics see that he shows to mean peace, quiet and leisure – a goal for retirement from politics and business. Others see a Christianized with Marvell showing a representation of the progress of a soul from the pursuit for the pagan promised land of the peaceful countryside and contemplation to the search for the lost heaven on earth.; page 5 Part of Marvell's poem "The Garden" below:
Brian Vickers Brian Lee Vickers (born October 24, 1983) is an American former professional stock car and sports car racing driver. He last drove the No. 14 Chevrolet SS for Stewart-Haas Racing as an interim driver in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series for the i ...
, a 20th-century British literary scholar, points out an expression made by
Friedrich Nietzsche Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (15 October 1844 – 25 August 1900) was a German philosopher. He began his career as a classical philology, classical philologist, turning to philosophy early in his academic career. In 1869, aged 24, Nietzsche bec ...
, a 19th-century German philosopher, on scholars' opinion of ''otium'' in his 1878 publication '' Menschliches, Allzumenschliches'':


Private life and public life meanings

Private life meaning of ''otium'' meant personal
retirement Retirement is the withdrawal from one's position or occupation or from one's active working life. A person may also semi-retire by reducing work hours or workload. Many people choose to retire when they are elderly or incapable of doing their j ...
– the opposite of business. It meant leisure only for one's own pleasure with no benefit to the state or public. Examples here is where one attends only his own farm or estate. Another is hunting. It was the opposite of "active public life". One would not be a historian in this case. In public life ''otium'' meant public peace and relief after war. It meant freedom from the enemy with no hostilities. It was not only freedom from external assault (the enemy), it was also freedom from internal disorder (civil war). This then had the meaning of leisure, peace and safety at the homeland. This eventually became the ''
status quo is a Latin phrase meaning the existing state of affairs, particularly with regard to social, economic, legal, environmental, political, religious, scientific or military issues. In the sociological sense, the ''status quo'' refers to the curren ...
'': acceptance of existing political and social conditions of the local laws, the custom of the ancestors, the powers of magistrates, authority of the senate, religions, the military, the treasury, and the praise of the empire.


Other uses

] * The term ''cum dignitate otium'' ("leisure with dignity") is found in
Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, orator, writer and Academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises tha ...
's writings and refers to an aim and purpose of the
Optimates ''Optimates'' (, ; Latin for "best ones"; ) and ''populares'' (; Latin for "supporters of the people"; ) are labels applied to politicians, political groups, traditions, strategies, or ideologies in the late Roman Republic. There is "heated ...
. * "Leisure without literature is death and burial for a living man." – a quote from
Seneca the Younger Lucius Annaeus Seneca the Younger ( ; AD 65), usually known mononymously as Seneca, was a Stoicism, Stoic philosopher of Ancient Rome, a statesman, a dramatist, and in one work, a satirist, from the post-Augustan age of Latin literature. Seneca ...
. * "Leisure is a system of symbols which acts to establish a feeling of freedom and pleasure by formulating a sense of choice and desire." * "Mr. Morgan was enjoying his otium in a dignified manner, surveying the evening fog, and smoking a cigar ..." * The
Art Nouveau Art Nouveau ( ; ; ), Jugendstil and Sezessionstil in German, is an international style of art, architecture, and applied art, especially the decorative arts. It was often inspired by natural forms such as the sinuous curves of plants and ...
or Jugendstyle residence of the United States Ambassador to Norway is called the Villa Otium.By Norwegian architect Henrik Bull. The building was inspired by Russian architecture, and was built for Hans Andreas Olsen, who had encountered it when he was the Consul General for Norway at St. Petersburg, Russia with his wife Ester, the niece of
Alfred Nobel Alfred Bernhard Nobel ( ; ; 21 October 1833 – 10 December 1896) was a Swedish chemist, inventor, engineer, and businessman. He is known for inventing dynamite, as well as having bequeathed his fortune to establish the Nobel Prizes. He also m ...
.
* ''Otium'' is the name of several USCG documented yachts.


Synonyms

''Otium'' carried with it many different meanings (including but not limited to time, chance, opportunity), depending on the time period or the philosophers involved in determining the concept.


Positive sense

Synonyms of positive connotations are: * : rest, repose, relief from toil. * : rest, repose, rest from labor, a hobby. * : tranquility, calm, quiet. * ''peace'': as a state or condition of freedom from external enemies. * : to pacify or appease, as the outcome of diplomatic conference and agreement with an enemy.


Negative sense

Synonyms of negative connotations are: * : dishonorable leisure, idle self-indulgence leisure. * : slackness, idleness. * : sloth, idleness, indolence. * : sloth, idleness, faint-heartedness. * : a sluggard's free time, he that fears labor; a man careless to attend to his duty first.


See also

*
Italian Renaissance garden The Italian Renaissance garden was a new style of garden which emerged in the late 15th century at villas in Rome and Florence, inspired by classical ideals of order and beauty, and intended for the pleasure of the view of the garden and the land ...
*
Sabbatical A sabbatical (from the Hebrew: (i.e., Sabbath); in Latin ; Greek: ) is a rest or break from work; "an extended period of time intentionally spent on something that’s not your routine job." The concept of the sabbatical is based on the Bi ...


References


Footnotes


Citations


Bibliography

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Further reading

* * www.otiumeats.com


External links


Hellenistic Philosophy


Horace Quintus Horatius Flaccus (; 8 December 65 BC – 27 November 8 BC), Suetonius, Life of Horace commonly known in the English-speaking world as Horace (), was the leading Roman lyric poet during the time of Augustus (also known as Octavian). Th ...
* Database of Niccolò Machiavelli's letters, focusing on different forms and practices of 'otium
machiavellianotium.org
{{Authority control Ancient Roman virtues Epicureanism Latin legal terminology Latin words and phrases Leisure Philosophy of law Political philosophy Roman law Stoicism