''Om'' (or ''Aum''; ; , ISO 15919: ''Ōṁ'') is a

polysemous Polysemy ( or ; ) is the capacity for a sign (e.g. a symbol, morpheme, word, or phrase) to have multiple related meanings. For example, a word can have several word senses. Polysemy is distinct from '' monosemy'', where a word has a single meani ...

symbol representing a sacred sound, seed syllable,

mantra A mantra ( ; Pali: ''mantra'') or mantram (Devanagari: मन्त्रम्) is a sacred utterance, a numinous sound, a syllable, word or phonemes, or group of words (most often in an Indo-Iranian language like Sanskrit or Avestan) belie ...

, and

invocation Invocation is the act of calling upon a deity, spirit, or supernatural force, typically through prayer, ritual, or spoken formula, to seek guidance, assistance, or presence. It is a practice found in numerous religious, spiritual, and esote ...

Hinduism Hinduism () is an Hypernymy and hyponymy, umbrella term for a range of Indian religions, Indian List of religions and spiritual traditions#Indian religions, religious and spiritual traditions (Sampradaya, ''sampradaya''s) that are unified ...

. Its written form is the most important symbol in the Hindu religion. It is the essence of the supreme Absolute, consciousness,James Lochtefeld (2002), "Om", ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing. , page 482Om
. ''Merriam-Webster'' (2013), Pronounced: \ˈōm\ '' Ātman,'' ''

Brahman In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' (; IAST: ''Brahman'') connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality of the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII In the ...

,'' or the cosmic world.David Leeming (2005), ''The Oxford Companion to World Mythology'',

Oxford University Press Oxford University Press (OUP) is the publishing house of the University of Oxford. It is the largest university press in the world. Its first book was printed in Oxford in 1478, with the Press officially granted the legal right to print books ...

, , page 54Hajime Nakamura, ''A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy'', Part 2, Motilal Banarsidass, , page 318Annette Wilke and Oliver Moebus (2011), ''Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism'', De Gruyter, , pages 435–456 In

Indian religions Indian religions, sometimes also termed Dharmic religions or Indic religions, are the religions that originated in the Indian subcontinent. These religions, which include Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism,Adams, C. J."Classification o ...

, ''Om'' serves as a sonic representation of the divine, a standard of

Vedic upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''. The Vedas ( or ; ), sometimes collectively called the Veda, are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed ...

authority and a central aspect of

soteriological Soteriology (; ' "salvation" from σωτήρ ' "savior, preserver" and λόγος ' "study" or "word") is the study of religious doctrines of salvation. Salvation theory occupies a place of special significance in many religions. In the academic ...

doctrines and practices. It is the basic tool for meditation in the yogic path to

liberation Liberation or liberate may refer to: Film and television * ''Liberation'' (film series), a 1970–1971 series about the Great Patriotic War * "Liberation" (''The Flash''), a TV episode * "Liberation" (''K-9''), an episode Gaming * '' Liberati ...

. The syllable is often found at the beginning and the end of chapters in the

Vedas FIle:Atharva-Veda samhita page 471 illustration.png, upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the ''Atharvaveda''. The Vedas ( or ; ), sometimes collectively called the Veda, are a large body of relig ...

, the

Upanishads The Upanishads (; , , ) are late Vedic and post-Vedic Sanskrit texts that "document the transition from the archaic ritualism of the Veda into new religious ideas and institutions" and the emergence of the central religious concepts of Hind ...

, and other

Hindu texts Hindu texts or Hindu scriptures are manuscripts and voluminous historical literature which are related to any of the diverse traditions within Hinduism. Some of the major Hindus, Hindu texts include the Vedas, the Upanishads, and the Itihasa. ...

. It is described as the goal of all the Vedas. ''Om'' emerged in the Vedic corpus and is said to be an encapsulated form of ''Samavedic'' chants or songs. It is a sacred spiritual incantation made before and during the recitation of spiritual texts, during '' puja'' and private prayers, in ceremonies of rites of passage ('' samskara'') such as weddings, and during meditative and spiritual activities such as

Pranava yoga Pranava yoga is meditation on the sacred mantra Om, as outlined in the Upanishads, the ''Bhagavad Gita'', and the ''Yoga Sutras of Patanjali''. It is also called ''Aum yoga'' and ''Aum yoga meditation''. It is, simply put, fixing the mind on the ...

.David White (2011), ''Yoga in Practice'', Princeton University Press, , pp. 104–111Alexander Studholme (2012), ''The Origins of Om Manipadme Hum: A Study of the Karandavyuha Sutra'', State University of New York Press, , pages 1–4 It is part of the iconography found in ancient and medieval era manuscripts, temples, monasteries, and spiritual retreats in

Buddhism Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...

Jainism Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religions, Indian religion whose three main pillars are nonviolence (), asceticism (), and a rejection of all simplistic and one-sided views of truth and reality (). Jainism traces its s ...

, and

Sikhism Sikhism is an Indian religion and Indian philosophy, philosophy that originated in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent around the end of the 15th century CE. It is one of the most recently founded major religious groups, major religio ...

. As a syllable, it is often chanted either independently or before a spiritual recitation and during

meditation Meditation is a practice in which an individual uses a technique to train attention and awareness and detach from reflexive, "discursive thinking", achieving a mentally clear and emotionally calm and stable state, while not judging the meditat ...

in Hinduism,

, and

Jan Gonda Jan Gonda (14 April 1905 – 28 July 1991) was a Dutch Indologist and the first Utrecht professor of Sanskrit. He was born in Gouda, in the Netherlands, and died in Utrecht. He studied with Willem Caland at Rijksuniversiteit, Utrecht (since 19 ...

(1963), ''The Indian Mantra'', Oriens, Vol. 16, pp. 244–297

Julius Lipner Julius Lipner (born 11 August 1946), who is of Indo-Czech origin, was Professor of Hinduism and the Comparative Study of Religion at the University of Cambridge. Early life Lipner was born and brought up in India, for the most part in West Bengal ...

(2010), ''Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices'', Routledge, , pp. 66–67 The syllable ''Om'' is also referred to as Onkara (Omkara) and Pranava among many other names.

Common names and synonyms

The syllable ''Om'' is referred to by many names, including: * ' (); literally, "fore-sound", referring to ''Om'' as the primeval sound. * ' () or ' (); literally, "''Om''-maker", denoting the first source of the sound ''Om'' and connoting the act of creation. ** ' (); literally, "one ''Om''-maker", and an epithet of God in

. (see

below Below may refer to: *Earth *Ground (disambiguation) *Soil *Floor * Bottom (disambiguation) *Less than *Temperatures below freezing *Hell or underworld People with the surname * Ernst von Below (1863–1955), German World War I general * Fred Belo ...

). * ' (); meaning "song, chant", a word found in

Samaveda The ''Samaveda'' (, , from '' सामन्'', "song" and ''वेद'', "knowledge"), is the Veda of melodies and chants. It is an ancient Vedic Sanskrit text, and is one of the sacred scriptures in Hinduism. One of the four Vedas, it is a l ...

and ''bhasya'' (commentaries) based on it. It is also used as a name of the syllable Om in Chandogya Upanishad. * ' (); literally, "imperishable, immutable", and also "letter of the alphabet" or "syllable". ** '; literally, "one letter of the alphabet", referring to its representation as a single

ligature Ligature may refer to: Language * Ligature (writing), a combination of two or more letters into a single symbol (typography and calligraphy) * Ligature (grammar), a morpheme that links two words Medicine * Ligature (medicine), a piece of suture us ...

. (see

)

Origin and spiritual significance

The etymological origins of ''ōm'' ''(aum)'' have long been discussed and disputed, with even the

having proposed multiple

Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...

etymologies for ''aum'', including: from "''ām''" (; "yes"), from "''ávam''" (; "that, thus, yes"), and from the Sanskrit roots "''āv-''" (; "to urge") or "''āp-''" (; "to attain"). In 1889,

Maurice Bloomfield Maurice Bloomfield, Ph.D., LL.D. (February 23, 1855 – June 12, 1928) was an Austrian Empire-born American philologist and Sanskrit scholar. Biography He was born Maurice Blumenfeld in Bielitz (), in what was at that time Austrian Siles ...

proposed an origin from a

Proto-Indo-European Proto-Indo-European (PIE) is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European language family. No direct record of Proto-Indo-European exists; its proposed features have been derived by linguistic reconstruction from documented Indo-Euro ...

introductory

particle In the physical sciences, a particle (or corpuscle in older texts) is a small localized object which can be described by several physical or chemical properties, such as volume, density, or mass. They vary greatly in size or quantity, from s ...

"''*au''" with a function similar to the Sanskrit particle "atha" (). However, contemporary

Indologist Indology, also known as South Asian studies, is the academic study of the history and cultures, languages, and literature of the Indian subcontinent, and as such is a subset of Asian studies. The term ''Indology'' (in German, ''Indologie'') is ...

Asko Parpola Asko Heikki Siegfried Parpola (born 12 July 1941, in Forssa) is a Finnish Indologist, current professor emeritus of Indology at the University of Helsinki. He specializes in the Indus Valley Civilization, specifically the study of the Indus scr ...

proposes a borrowing from Dravidian "''*ām''" meaning "'it is so', 'let it be so', 'yes'", a contraction of "''*ākum''", cognate with modern

Tamil Tamil may refer to: People, culture and language * Tamils, an ethno-linguistic group native to India, Sri Lanka, and some other parts of Asia **Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka ** Myanmar or Burmese Tamils, Tamil people of Ind ...

"''ām''" () meaning "yes". In the Jaffna Tamil dialect spoken in Sri Lanka, ''aum is the word for yes. Regardless of its original meaning, the syllable ''Om'' evolves to mean many abstract ideas even in the earliest Upanishads.

Max Müller Friedrich Max Müller (; 6 December 1823 – 28 October 1900) was a German-born British comparative philologist and oriental studies, Orientalist. He was one of the founders of the Western academic disciplines of Indology and religious s ...

and other scholars state that these philosophical texts recommend ''Om'' as a basic tool for meditation and explain the various meanings that the syllable may hold in the mind of one meditating, ranging from "artificial and senseless" to the "highest concepts such as the cause of the Universe, essence of life,

Atman Atman or Ātman may refer to: Religion * ''Ātman'' (Hinduism), meaning "Self", a philosophical concept common to all schools of Hindu philosophy * ''Ātman'' (Buddhism), ''attā'' or ''attan'', a reference to the essential self ** ''Anattā'' ...

, and Self-knowledge".Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 67-85, 227, 284, 308, 318, 361-366, 468, 600-601, 667, 772 The syllable ''Om'' is first mentioned in the Upanishads. It has been associated with various concepts, such as "cosmic sound", "mystical syllable", "affirmation to something divine", or as symbolism for abstract spiritual concepts in the Upanishads. In the

Aranyaka The ''Aranyakas'' (; ; IAST: ') are a part of the ancient Indian Vedas concerned with the meaning of ritual sacrifice, composed in about 700 BC. They typically represent the later sections of the Vedas, and are one of many layers of Vedic text ...

and the

Brahmana The Brahmanas (; Sanskrit: , International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration, IAST: ''Brāhmaṇam'') are Vedas, Vedic śruti works attached to the Samhitas (hymns and mantras) of the Rigveda, Rig, Samaveda, Sama, Yajurveda, Yajur, and Athar ...

layers of Vedic texts, the syllable is so widespread and linked to knowledge, that it stands for the "whole of Veda". The symbolic foundations of ''Om'' are repeatedly discussed in the oldest layers of the early Upanishads. The

Aitareya Brahmana The Aitareya Brahmana () is the Brahmana of the Shakala Shakha of the Rigveda, an ancient Indian collection of sacred hymns. This work, according to the tradition, is ascribed to Mahidasa Aitareya. Authorship Sayana of Vijayanagara, a 14th ce ...

of Rig Veda, in section 5.32, suggests that the three phonetic components of ''Om'' (''a'' + ''u'' + ''m'') correspond to the three stages of cosmic creation, and when it is read or said, it celebrates the creative powers of the universe. However, in the eight anuvaka of the Taittiriya Upanishad, which consensus research indicates was formulated around the same time or preceding Aitareya Brahmana, the sound Aum is attributed to reflecting the inner part of the word Brahman. Put another way, it is the Brahman, in the form of a word. The Brahmana layer of Vedic texts equates ''Om'' with ''bhur-bhuvah-svah'', which symbolizes "the whole Veda". They offer various shades of meaning to ''Om'', such as it being "the universe beyond the sun", or that which is "mysterious and inexhaustible", or "the infinite language, the infinite knowledge", or "essence of breath, life, everything that exists", or that "with which one is liberated". The

, the poetical Veda, orthographically maps ''Om'' to the audible, the musical truths in its numerous variations (''Oum'', ''Aum'', ''Ovā Ovā Ovā Um'', etc.) and then attempts to extract musical meters from it.

Pronunciation

When occurring within spoken

Classical Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest ...

, the syllable is subject to the normal rules of

sandhi Sandhi ( ; , ) is any of a wide variety of sound changes that occur at morpheme or word boundaries. Examples include fusion of sounds across word boundaries and the alteration of one sound depending on nearby sounds or the grammatical function o ...

Sanskrit grammar The grammar of the Sanskrit language has a complex verbal system, rich nominal declension, and extensive use of compound nouns. It was studied and codified by Sanskrit grammarians from the later Vedic period (roughly 8th century BCE), culminatin ...

, with the additional peculiarity that the initial ''o'' of "''Om''" is the

guṇa () is a concept in Hinduism, which can be translated as "quality, peculiarity, attribute, property".vowel grade of ''u'', not the

vṛddhi Vṛddhi (also rendered vr̥ddhi) is a technical term in morphophonology given to the strongest grade in the vowel gradation system of Sanskrit and of Proto-Indo-European. The term is derived from Sanskrit वृद्धि ''vṛddhi'', , 'g ...

grade, and is therefore pronounced as a

monophthong A monophthong ( ) is a pure vowel sound, or one whose articulation at beginning and end is relatively fixed, with the tongue moving neither up nor down and neither forward nor backward towards a new position of articulation. A monophthong can be ...

with a

long vowel In linguistics, vowel length is the perceived or actual duration of a vowel sound when pronounced. Vowels perceived as shorter are often called short vowels and those perceived as longer called long vowels. On one hand, many languages do not d ...

(), i.e. ''ōm'' not ''aum''. Furthermore, the final ''m'' is often assimilated into the preceding vowel as

nasalisation In phonetics, nasalization (or nasalisation in British English) is the production of a sound while the velum is lowered, so that some air escapes through the nose during the production of the sound by the mouth. An archetypal nasal sound is . ...

(). As a result, ''Om'' is regularly pronounced in the context of Sanskrit. However, this ''o'' reflects the older

Vedic Sanskrit Vedic Sanskrit, also simply referred as the Vedic language, is the most ancient known precursor to Sanskrit, a language in the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan subgroup of the Indo-European languages, Indo-European language family. It is atteste ...

diphthong A diphthong ( ), also known as a gliding vowel or a vowel glide, is a combination of two adjacent vowel sounds within the same syllable. Technically, a diphthong is a vowel with two different targets: that is, the tongue (and/or other parts of ...

''au'', which at that stage in the language's history had not yet

ised to ''o''. This being so, the syllable ''Om'' is often

archaically In language, an archaism is a word, a sense of a word, or a style of speech or writing that belongs to a historical epoch beyond living memory, but that has survived in a few practical settings or affairs. Lexical archaisms are single archaic w ...

considered as consisting of three

phoneme A phoneme () is any set of similar Phone (phonetics), speech sounds that are perceptually regarded by the speakers of a language as a single basic sound—a smallest possible Phonetics, phonetic unit—that helps distinguish one word fr ...

s: "a-u-m". Accordingly, some denominations maintain the archaic diphthong ''au'' viewing it to be more authentic and closer to the language of the

. In the context of the

, particularly the Vedic

s, the vowel is often '' pluta'' ("three times as long"), indicating a length of three

morae A mora (plural ''morae'' or ''moras''; often symbolized μ) is a smallest unit of timing, equal to or shorter than a syllable, that theoretically or perceptually exists in some spoken languages in which phonetic length (such as vowel length) matt ...

(), that is, the time it takes to say three

light syllable In linguistics, syllable weight is the concept that syllables pattern together according to the number and/or duration of segments in the rime. In classical Indo-European verse, as developed in Greek, Sanskrit, and Latin, distinctions of syllable ...

s. Additionally, a diphthong becomes with the prolongation of its first vowel. When ''e'' and ''o'' undergo they typically revert to the original diphthongs with the initial ''a'' prolonged, realised as an overlong

open back unrounded vowel The open back unrounded vowel, or low back unrounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound, used in some Speech, spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is , and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is A ...

(''ā̄um'' or ''a3um'' ). This extended duration is emphasised by denominations who regard it as more authentically Vedic, such as

Arya Samaj Arya Samaj () is a monotheistic Indian Hindu reform movement that promotes values and practices based on the belief in the infallible authority of the Vedas. Dayananda Saraswati founded the samaj in the 1870s. Arya Samaj was the first Hindu ...

. However, ''Om'' is also attested in the

without '' pluta'', and many languages related to or influenced by Classical Sanskrit, such as Hindustani, share its pronunciation of ''Om'' ( or ).

Written representations

South Asia

Nagari or

Devanagari Devanagari ( ; in script: , , ) is an Indic script used in the Indian subcontinent. It is a left-to-right abugida (a type of segmental Writing systems#Segmental systems: alphabets, writing system), based on the ancient ''Brāhmī script, Brā ...

representations are found epigraphically on sculpture dating from

Medieval India Medieval India was a long period of post-classical history in the Indian subcontinent between the ancient and modern periods. It is usually regarded as running approximately from the break-up of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century to the star ...

and on ancient coins in regional scripts throughout South Asia. ''Om'' is represented in

as , composed of four elements: the

vowel letter A vowel is a speech sound pronounced without any stricture in the vocal tract, forming the nucleus of a syllable. Vowels are one of the two principal classes of speech sounds, the other being the consonant. Vowels vary in quality, in loudnes ...

(), the vowel diacritic (), the consonant letter (), and the ''

virama Virama ( ्, ) is a Sanskrit phonological concept to suppress the inherent vowel that otherwise occurs with every consonant letter, commonly used as a generic term for a codepoint in Unicode, representing either # halanta, hasanta or explicit vir ...

'' stroke which indicates the absence of an implied final vowel. Historically, the combination represented a diphthong, often transcribed as , but it now represents a long vowel, . (See

above Above may refer to: *Above (artist) Tavar Zawacki (b. 1981, California) is a Polish, Portuguese - American abstract artist and internationally recognized visual artist based in Berlin, Germany. From 1996 to 2016, he created work under the ...

.) The syllable is sometimes written , where (i.e., the digit "3") explicitly indicates '' pluta'' ('three times as long') which is otherwise only implied. For this same reason ''Om'' may also be written in languages such as

Hindi Modern Standard Hindi (, ), commonly referred to as Hindi, is the Standard language, standardised variety of the Hindustani language written in the Devanagari script. It is an official language of India, official language of the Government ...

, with the () being used to indicate prolonging the vowel sound. (However, this differs from the usage of the in

, where it would instead indicate the

prodelision Prodelision is a form of elision where, in a string of two words, the latter word loses its initial vowel(s). Example: "Namqu(e) etsi nullum memorabile nomen femine(a) in poena (e)st, habet haec victoria laudem, exstinxisse nefas." (Aeneid 2.583- ...

of the initial vowel.) ''Om'' may also be written , with an reflecting the pronunciation of in languages such as Hindi. In languages such as

Urdu Urdu (; , , ) is an Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in South Asia. It is the Languages of Pakistan, national language and ''lingua franca'' of Pakistan. In India, it is an Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of Indi ...

and Sindhi ''Om'' may be written in

Arabic script The Arabic script is the writing system used for Arabic (Arabic alphabet) and several other languages of Asia and Africa. It is the second-most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world (after the Latin script), the second-most widel ...

, although speakers of these languages may also use Devanagari representations. The commonly seen representation of the syllable ''Om,'' , is a

cursive Cursive (also known as joined-up writing) is any style of penmanship in which characters are written joined in a flowing manner, generally for the purpose of making writing faster, in contrast to block letters. It varies in functionality and m ...

, combining () with () and the

chandrabindu Chandrabindu (IAST: , in Sanskrit) is a diacritic sign with the form of a dot inside the lower half of a circle. It is used in the Devanagari (ँ), Bengali-Assamese (), Gujarati (ઁ), Odia (ଁ), Tamil (◌𑌁 Extension used from Grant ...

(

ँ Chandrabindu (IAST: , in Sanskrit) is a diacritic sign with the form of a dot inside the lower half of a circle. It is used in the Devanagari (ँ), Bengali-Assamese (), Gujarati (ઁ), Odia (ଁ), Tamil (◌𑌁 Extension used from Grant ...

,). In

Unicode Unicode or ''The Unicode Standard'' or TUS is a character encoding standard maintained by the Unicode Consortium designed to support the use of text in all of the world's writing systems that can be digitized. Version 16.0 defines 154,998 Char ...

, the symbol is encoded at and at as a "generic symbol independent of Devanagari font". In some South Asian

writing system A writing system comprises a set of symbols, called a ''script'', as well as the rules by which the script represents a particular language. The earliest writing appeared during the late 4th millennium BC. Throughout history, each independen ...

s, the ''Om'' symbol has been simplified further. In Bengali and Assamese ''Om'' is written simply as without an additional curl. In languages such as

Bengali Bengali or Bengalee, or Bengalese may refer to: *something of, from, or related to Bengal, a large region in South Asia * Bengalis, an ethnic and linguistic group of the region * Bengali language, the language they speak ** Bengali alphabet, the w ...

differences in pronunciation compared to Sanskrit have made the addition of a curl for redundant. Although the spelling is simpler, the pronunciation remains . Similarly, in Odia ''Om'' is written as without an additional diacritic. In

, ''Om'' is written as , a ligature of (''ō'') and (''m''), while in

Kannada Kannada () is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly in the state of Karnataka in southwestern India, and spoken by a minority of the population in all neighbouring states. It has 44 million native speakers, and is additionally a ...

Telugu Telugu may refer to: * Telugu language, a major Dravidian language of South India ** Telugu literature, is the body of works written in the Telugu language. * Telugu people, an ethno-linguistic group of India * Telugu script, used to write the Tel ...

, and

Malayalam Malayalam (; , ) is a Dravidian languages, Dravidian language spoken in the Indian state of Kerala and the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry (union territory), Puducherry (Mahé district) by the Malayali people. It is one of ...

, ''Om'' is written simply as the letter for ''ō'' followed by (, , and , respectively). There have been proposals that the ''Om'' syllable may already have had written representations in

Brahmi script Brahmi ( ; ; ISO 15919, ISO: ''Brāhmī'') is a writing system from ancient India. "Until the late nineteenth century, the script of the Aśokan (non-Kharosthi) inscriptions and its immediate derivatives was referred to by various names such as ...

, dating to before the

Common Era Common Era (CE) and Before the Common Era (BCE) are year notations for the Gregorian calendar (and its predecessor, the Julian calendar), the world's most widely used calendar era. Common Era and Before the Common Era are alternatives to the ...

. A proposal by Deb (1921) held that the ''

swastika The swastika (卐 or 卍, ) is a symbol used in various Eurasian religions and cultures, as well as a few Indigenous peoples of Africa, African and Indigenous peoples of the Americas, American cultures. In the Western world, it is widely rec ...

'' is a monogrammatic representation of the syllable ''Om'', wherein two Brahmi /o/ characters () were superposed crosswise and the 'm' was represented by dot. A commentary in ''Nature (journal), Nature'' (1922) considers this theory questionable and unproven. A. B. Walawalkar (1951) proposed that ''Om'' was represented using the Brahmi symbols for "A", "U", and "M" (), and that this may have influenced the unusual epigraphical features of the symbol for ''Om''. Henry Parker (author), Parker (1909) wrote that an "Aum monogram", distinct from the swastika, is found among Tamil-Brahmi Tamil inscriptions in Sri Lanka, inscriptions in Sri Lanka, including Anuradhapura Kingdom, Anuradhapura era coins, dated from the 1st to 4th centuries CE, which are embossed with ''Om'' along with other symbols.

East and Southeast Asia

The ''Om'' symbol, with epigraphical variations, is also found in many Southeast Asian countries. In Southeast Asia, the ''Om'' symbol is widely conflated with that of the unalome; originally a representation of the Buddha's urna curl and later a symbol of the path to nirvana, it is a popular yantra in Southeast Asia, particularly in Cambodia and Thailand. It frequently appears in Yantra tattooing, ''sak yant'' religious tattoos, and has been a part of various flags and official emblems such as in the Royal Standard of Thailand#Fourth reign, Thong Chom Klao of Mongkut, King Rama IV () and the present-day royal arms of Cambodia. The Khmer people, Khmer adopted the symbol since the 1st century during the Funan, Kingdom of Funan, where it is also seen on artefacts from Angkor Borei and Phnom Da, Angkor Borei, once the capital of Funan. The symbol is seen on numerous Khmer statues from Chenla to Khmer Empire periods and still in used until the present day. In Chinese characters, ''Om'' is typically transliteration, transliterated as either :wikt:唵, 唵 ( zh, p=ǎn) or :wikt:嗡, 嗡 ( zh, p=wēng).

Representation in various scripts

Northern Brahmic

Southern Brahmic

Non-Brahmic

Hinduism

, ''Om'' is one of the most important spiritual sounds. The syllable is often found at the beginning and the end of chapters in the

, the

, and other Hindu texts, and is often chanted either independently or before a mantra, as a sacred spiritual incantation made before and during the recitation of spiritual texts, during puja and private prayers, in ceremonies of rites of passages (Sanskara (rite of passage), sanskara) such as weddings, and during meditative and spiritual activities such as yoga. It is the most sacred syllable symbol and

, which is the ultimate reality, consciousness or Atman (Hinduism), Atman (Self within). It is called the ''Shabda Brahman'' (Brahman as sound) and believed to be the primordial sound () of the universe.

Vedas

''Om'' came to be used as a standard utterance at the beginning of mantras, chants or citations taken from the Vedas. For example, the Gayatri mantra, which consists of a verse from the Rigveda Samhita (Mandala 3, RV 3.62.10), is prefixed not just by ''Om'' but by ''Om'' followed by the formula ''bhūr bhuvaḥ svaḥ''.Monier Monier-Williams (1893), ''Indian Wisdom'', Luzac & Co., London, page 17 Such recitations continue to be in use in Hinduism, with many major incantations and ceremonial functions beginning and ending with ''Om''.

Brahmanas

= Aitareya Brahmana

= The

(7.18.13) explains ''Om'' as "an acknowledgment, melodic confirmation, something that gives momentum and energy to a hymn".

Upanishads

= Chandogya Upanishad

= The Chandogya Upanishad is one of the oldest Upanishads of Hinduism. It opens with the recommendation that "let a man meditate on Om".Max Muller
Chandogya Upanishad
''The Upanishads'', Part I, Oxford University Press, pages 1–3 with footnotes It calls the syllable ''Om'' as ''udgitha'' (; song, chant), and asserts that the significance of the syllable is thus: the essence of all beings is earth, the essence of earth is water, the essence of water are the plants, the essence of plants is man, the essence of man is speech, the essence of speech is the Rigveda, the essence of the Rigveda is the Samaveda, and the essence of Samaveda is the ''udgitha'' (song, ''Om''). () is speech, states the text, and () is breath; they are pairs, and because they have love for each other, speech and breath find themselves together and mate to produce a song. The highest song is ''Om'', asserts section 1.1 of Chandogya Upanishad. It is the symbol of awe, of reverence, of threefold knowledge because ''Adhvaryu'' invokes it, the ''Hotr'' recites it, and ''Udgatr'' sings it.Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 68-70Patrick Olivelle (2014), ''The Early Upanishads'', Oxford University Press, , page 171-185 The second volume of the first chapter continues its discussion of syllable ''Om'', explaining its use as a struggle between ''Deva (Hinduism), Devas'' (gods) and ''Asuras'' (demons).Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 70–71 with footnotes Max Muller states that this struggle between gods and demons is considered allegorical by ancient Indian people, Indian scholars, as good and evil inclinations within man, respectively.Max Muller
Chandogya Upanishad
''The Upanishads'', Part I, Oxford University Press, pages 4–6 with footnotes The legend in section 1.2 of Chandogya Upanishad states that gods took the ''Udgitha'' (song of ''Om'') unto themselves, thinking, "with this ''song'' we shall overcome the demons".Robert Hume
Chandogya Upanishad
''The Thirteen Principal Upanishads'', Oxford University Press, pages 178-180 The syllable ''Om'' is thus implied as that which inspires the good inclinations within each person. Chandogya Upanishad's exposition of syllable ''Om'' in its opening chapter combines etymological speculations, symbolism, metric structure and philosophical themes. In the second chapter of the Chandogya Upanishad, the meaning and significance of ''Om'' evolves into a philosophical discourse, such as in section 2.10 where ''Om'' is linked to the Highest Self, and section 2.23 where the text asserts ''Om'' is the essence of three forms of knowledge, ''Om'' is

and "Om is all this [observed world]".

= Katha Upanishad

= The Katha Upanishad is the legendary story of a little boy, Nachiketa, the son of sage , who meets Yama, the Vedic deity of death. Their conversation evolves to a discussion of the nature of man, knowledge,

(Self) and moksha (liberation).Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 269-273 In section 1.2, Katha Upanishad characterises knowledge () as the pursuit of the good, and ignorance () as the pursuit of the pleasant.Max Muller (1962), Katha Upanishad, in The Upanishads – Part II, Dover Publications, , page 8 It teaches that the essence of the Veda is to make man liberated and free, look past what has happened and what has not happened, free from the past and the future, beyond good and evil, and one word for this essence is the word ''Om''.Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 284-286

= Maitri Upanishad

= The Maitrayaniya Upanishad in sixth ''Prapathakas'' (lesson) discusses the meaning and significance of ''Om''. The text asserts that ''Om'' represents Brahman-Atman. The three roots of the syllable, states the Maitri Upanishad, are ''A'' + ''U'' + ''M''. The sound is the body of Self, and it repeatedly manifests in three: * as gender-endowed body – feminine, masculine, neuter; * as light-endowed body – Agni, Vayu, and Surya, Aditya; * as deity-endowed body – Brahma, Rudra, and Vishnu; * as mouth-endowed body – ''garhapatya'', ''dakshinagni'', and ''ahavaniya''; * as knowledge-endowed body – Rigveda, Rig, Samaveda, Saman, and Yajurveda, Yajur; * as world-endowed body – , , and ; * as time-endowed body – past, present, and future; * as heat-endowed body – Prana, breath, Agni (Ayurveda), fire, and Surya, Sun; * as growth-endowed body – food, water, and Chandra, Moon; * as thought-endowed body – Buddhi, intellect, Antahkarana, mind, and Citta, psyche.Maitri Upanishad – Sanskrit Text with English Translation
EB Cowell (Translator), Cambridge University, ''Bibliotheca Indica'', page 258-260 Brahman exists in two forms – the material form, and the immaterial formless. The material form is changing, unreal. The immaterial formless is not changing, real. The immortal formless is truth, the truth is the Brahman, the Brahman is the light, the light is the Sun which is the syllable ''Om'' as the Self. The world is ''Om'', its light is Sun, and the Sun is also the light of the syllable ''Om'', asserts the Upanishad. Meditating on ''Om'', is acknowledging and meditating on the Brahman-Atman (Self).

= Mundaka Upanishad

= The Mundaka Upanishad in the second ''Mundakam'' (part), suggests the means to knowing the Atman and the Brahman are meditation, self-reflection, and introspection and that they can be aided by the symbol ''Om''. It uses a bow and arrow analogy, where the bow symbolizes the focused mind, the arrow symbolizes the self (Atman), and the target represents the ultimate reality (Brahman). Adi Shankara, in his review of the Mundaka Upanishad, states ''Om'' as a symbolism for Atman (Hinduism), Atman (Self).

= Mandukya Upanishad

= The Mandukya Upanishad opens by declaring, "''Om''!, this syllable is this whole world". Thereafter, it presents various explanations and theories on what it means and signifies. This discussion is built on a structure of "four fourths" or "fourfold", derived from ''A'' + ''U'' + ''M'' + "silence" (or without an element).Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 605-637 * ''Om'' as all states of Kāla, Time. *: In verse 1, the Upanishad states that time is threefold: the past, the present and the future, that these three are ''Om''. The four fourth of time is that which transcends time, that too is ''Om'' expressed. * ''Om'' as all states of Ātman . *: In verse 2, states the Upanishad, everything is Brahman, but Brahman is Atman (the Self), and that the Atman is fourfold. Johnston summarizes these four states of Self, respectively, as seeking the physical, seeking inner thought, seeking the causes and spiritual consciousness, and the fourth state is realizing oneness with the Self, the Eternal.Charles Johnston
The Measures of the Eternal – Mandukya Upanishad
Theosophical Quarterly, October, 1923, pages 158-162 * ''Om'' as all states of Consciousness. *: In verses 3 to 6, the Mandukya Upanishad enumerates four states of consciousness: wakeful, dream, deep sleep, and the state of ''ekatma'' (being one with Self, the oneness of Self). These four are ''A'' + ''U'' + ''M'' + "without an element" respectively. * ''Om'' as all of Vidya (philosophy), Knowledge. *: In verses 9 to 12, the Mandukya Upanishad enumerates fourfold etymological roots of the syllable ''Om''. It states that the first element of ''Om'' is ''A'', which is from ''Apti'' (obtaining, reaching) or from ''Adimatva'' (being first). The second element is ''U'', which is from ''Utkarsa'' (exaltation) or from ''Ubhayatva'' (intermediateness). The third element is ''M'', from ''Miti'' (erecting, constructing) or from ''Mi Minati, or apīti'' (annihilation). The fourth is without an element, without development, beyond the expanse of universe. In this way, states the Upanishad, the syllable Om is indeed the Atman (the self).

= Shvetashvatara Upanishad

= The Shvetashvatara Upanishad, in verses 1.14 to 1.16, suggests meditating with the help of syllable ''Om'', where one's perishable body is like one fuel-stick and the syllable ''Om'' is the second fuel-stick, which with discipline and diligent rubbing of the sticks unleashes the concealed fire of thought and awareness within. Such knowledge, asserts the Upanishad, is the goal of Upanishads.Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 308 The text asserts that ''Om'' is a tool of meditation empowering one to know the God within oneself, to realize one's Atman (Self). Ganesha-aum

= Ganapati Upanishad

= The Ganapati Atharvaśīrṣa, Ganapati Upanishad asserts that Ganesha is same as Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, all deities, the universe, and ''Om''.

Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana

The Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana, a Samavedic text, outlines a story where those who chant Om can achieve the same rewards as deities. However, the gods are concerned about humans ascending to their realm. To address this concern, a compromise is reached between the gods and Death. Humans can attain immortality, but it involves relinquishing their physical bodies to Death. This immortality entails an extended celestial existence after a long earthly life, where the practitioner aspires to acquire a divine self (atman) in a non-physical form, allowing them to reside eternally in the heavenly realm.

Ramayana

In Valmiki's Ramayana, Rama is identified with ''Om'', with Brahma saying to Rama:

''Bhagavad Gita''

The ''Bhagavad Gita'', in the ''Mahabharata'', mentions the meaning and significance of ''Om'' in several verses. According to Jeaneane Fowler, verse 9.17 of the Bhagavad Gita synthesizes the competing dualistic and monist streams of thought in Hinduism, by using "''Om'' which is the symbol for the indescribable, impersonal

". The significance of the sacred syllable in the Hindu traditions, is similarly highlighted in other verses of the ''Gita'', such as verse 17.24 where the importance of ''Om'' during prayers, charity and meditative practices is explained as follows:

Puranas

The medieval era texts of Hinduism, such as the Puranas adopt and expand the concept of ''Om'' in their own ways, and to their own theistic sects.

Vaishnava traditions

The Vaishnavism, Vaishnava ''Garuda Purana'' equates the recitation of ''Om'' with obeisance to Vishnu. According to the ''Vayu Purana'', ''Om'' is the representation of the Hindu Trimurti, and represents the union of the three gods, viz. ''A'' for Brahma, ''U'' for Vishnu and ''M'' for Shiva. The ''Bhagavata Purana'' (9.14.46-48) identifies the ''Pranava'' as the root of all Vedic mantras, and describes the combined letters of ''a-u-m'' as an invocation of seminal birth, Religious initiation rites, initiation, and the performance of sacrifice (yajña). In Sri Vaishnavism, Śrī Vaiṣṇava tradition, sub-traditions differ on who has eligibility to say ''Oṁ'', but it is generally a "nonissue" as it is not necessary for salvation. The Teṉkalai division, represented by Pillai Lokacharya, Piḷḷailokācārya in his ''Parantapaṭi'', allow everyone to recite the ''praṇava'', arguing the syllable arises spontaneously from all. The Vaṭakalai division, represented by Vedanta Desika, Vedāntadeśika in his ''Rahasyatrayasāra'', disallows women and śūdras from reciting the ''praṇava'', citing older scriptural injunctions to support the stance.

Shaiva traditions

In Shaivism, Shaiva traditions, the ''Shiva Purana'' highlights the relation between deity Shiva and the ''Pranava'' or ''Om''. Shiva is declared to be ''Om'', and that ''Om'' is Shiva. After this, an epithet of Shiva is Omkareshwar, the Lord, Ishvara, of oṃkāra.

Shakta traditions

In the thealogy of Shaktism, Shakta traditions, ''Om'' connotes the female divine energy, Adi Parashakti, represented in the Tridevi: ''A'' for the creative energy (the Shakti of Brahma), Mahasaraswati, ''U'' for the preservative energy (the Shakti of Vishnu), Mahalakshmi, and ''M'' for the destructive energy (the Shakti of Shiva), Mahakali. The 12th book of the ''Devi-Bhagavata Purana'' describes the Devi, Goddess as the mother of the Vedas, the ''Adya Shakti'' (primal energy, primordial power), and the essence of the Gayatri mantra.

Other texts

Yoga Sutra

The aphoristic verse 1.27 of Pantanjali's ''Yogasutra'' links ''Om'' to Yoga practice, as follows: Charles Johnston (Theosophist), Johnston states this verse highlights the importance of ''Om'' in the meditative practice of yoga, where it symbolises the three worlds in the Self; the three times – past, present, and future eternity; the three divine powers – creation, preservation, and transformation in one Being; and three essences in one Spirit – immortality, omniscience, and joy. It is, asserts Johnston, a symbol for the perfected Spiritual Man.

Chaitanya Charitamrita

In Krishnaism, Krishnava traditions, Krishna is revered as Svayam Bhagavan, the Supreme Lord himself, and ''Om'' is interpreted in light of this. According to the ''Chaitanya Charitamrita'', ''Om'' is the sound representation of the Supreme Lord. ''A'' is said to represent Bhagavan Krishna (Vishnu), ''U'' represents Srimati Radharani (Mahalakshmi), and ''M'' represents jiva, the Self of the devotee.

Tantrasāra

According to the ''Brihat Tantrasara, Tantrasāra'' of Krishnananda Agamavagisha, Kr̥ṣṇānanda Āgamavāgīśa, a śūdra may not be initiated with a mantra beginning with Oṁ aka praṇava.

Jainism

, ''Om'' is considered a condensed form of reference to the Pañca-Parameṣṭhi by their initials ''A+A+A+U+M'' ('). The Dravyasamgraha quotes a Prakrit line: By extension, the Om symbol is also used in Jainism to represent the first five lines of the Namokar Mantra, Namokar mantra, the most important part of the daily prayer in the Jain religion, which honours the . These five lines are (in English): "(1.) veneration to the Arihants, (2.) veneration to the perfect ones, (3.) veneration to the masters, (4.) veneration to the teachers, (5.) veneration to all the monks in the world".

Buddhism

''Om'' is often used in some later schools of Buddhism, for example Tibetan Buddhism, which was influenced by Hinduism and Tantra. In East Asian Buddhism, ''Om'' is often Transliteration, transliterated as the Chinese character (pinyin ) or (pinyin ).

Tibetan Buddhism and Vajrayana

In Tibetan

, ''Om'' is often placed at the beginning of mantras and dharanis. Probably the most well known mantra is "Om mani padme hum", the six syllable mantra of the Bodhisattva of compassion, Avalokiteśvara. This mantra is particularly associated with the four-armed form of Avalokiteśvara. Moreover, as a seed syllable (''Bīja mantra''), ''Om'' is considered sacred and holy in Esoteric Buddhism. Some scholars interpret the first word of the mantra to be , with a meaning similar to Hinduism – the totality of sound, existence, and consciousness. has been described by the 14th Dalai Lama as "composed of three pure letters, A, U, and M. These symbolize the impure Three Vajras, body, speech, and mind of everyday unenlightened life of a practitioner; they also symbolize the pure exalted body, speech and mind of an enlightened Buddha". According to Simpkins, ''Om'' is a part of many mantras in Tibetan Buddhism and is a symbolism for wholeness, perfection, and the infinite.

Japanese Buddhism

''A-un''

The term is the transliteration in Japanese of the two syllables "''a''" and "", written in

as . In Japanese, it is often Conflation, conflated with the syllable ''Om''. The original Sanskrit term is composed of two letters, the first () and the last () letters of the Devanagari abugida, with Devanagari#Vowel diacritics, diacritics (including anusvara) on the latter indicating the "-" of "". Together, they symbolically represent the beginning and the end of all things. In Japanese ''Mikkyō'' Buddhism, the letters represent the beginning and the end of the universe. This is comparable to Alpha and Omega, the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet, similarly adopted by Christianity to symbolise Christ as the beginning and end of all. The term ''a-un'' is used figuratively in some Japanese expressions as or , indicating an inherently harmonious relationship or nonverbal communication.

''Niō'' guardian kings and ''komainu'' lion-dogs

The term is also used in Japanese Buddhist architecture, Buddhist architecture and Shinto architecture, Shinto to describe the paired statues common in Japanese religious settings, most notably the ''Niō'' () and the ''komainu'' (). One (usually on the right) has an open mouth regarded by Buddhists as symbolically speaking the "A" syllable; the other (usually on the left) has a closed mouth, symbolically speaking the "Un" syllable. The two together are regarded as saying "''A-un''". The general name for statues with an open mouth is , that for those with a closed mouth . Niō statues in Japan, and their equivalent in East Asia, appear in pairs in front of Buddhist Torana, temple gates and stupas, in the form of two fierce looking guardian kings (''Vajrapani''). Komainu, also called lion-dogs, found in Japan, Korea and China, also occur in pairs before Buddhist temples and public spaces, and again, one has an open mouth (), the other closed ().

Sikhism

''Ik Onkar'' (; iconically represented as ) are the first words of the Mul Mantar, which is the opening verse of the Guru Granth Sahib, the Sikh scripture. Combining the numeral one ("''Ik''") and "''Onkar''", ''Ik Onkar'' literally means "one ''Om ''"; these words are a statement that there is "one God", understood to refer to the "absolute Monotheism, monotheistic unity of God" and implying "singularity in spite of the seeming multiplicity of existence". According to Pashaura Singh, ''Onkar'' is used frequently as invocation in Sikh scripture; it is the foundational word (''Shabda, shabad''), the seed of Sikh scripture, and the basis of the "whole creation of time and space". ''Ik Onkar'' is a significant Names of God#Sikhism, name of God in the Guru Granth Sahib and Gurbani, states Kohli, and occurs as "''Aum''" in the

and where it is understood as the abstract representation of three worlds (''Trailokya'') of Creationism, creation. According to Wazir Singh, ''Onkar'' is a "variation of ''Om'' (''Aum'') of the ancient Indian scriptures (with a change in its orthography), implying the unifying ''seed-force'' that evolves as the universe". Guru Nanak wrote a poem entitled ''Onkar'' in which, states Doniger, he "attributed the origin and sense of speech to the Divinity, who is thus the Om-maker". "Onkar" is the primordial sound/word. It is the soundless word (''anahat naad'' or ''anahad naad''). It is both the source as well as manifestation of the source. "Onkar" pervades the entire creation. The soundless sound is present everywhere and inside everything including us. In Sikhism, the Guru Granth Sahib is manifested form of this "Onkar". Hence, the Guru Granth Sahib is called "Shabad Guru". Shabad (word) is Guru and Guru itself is the Primordial Sound "Onkar" (God).

Thelema

For both symbolic and English Qabalah, numerological reasons, Aleister Crowley adapted ''aum'' into a Thelema, Thelemic magical formula, ''AUMGN'', adding a silent 'g' (as in the word 'gnosis') and a nasal 'n' to the ''m'' to form the Trigraph (orthography), compound letter 'MGN'; the 'g' makes explicit the silence previously only implied by the terminal 'm' while the 'n' indicates nasal vocalisation connoting the breath of life and together they connote knowledge and generation. Together these letters, ''MGN'', have a numerological value of Thelema#93, 93, a number with Polysemy, polysemic significance in Thelema. ''Om'' appears in this extended form throughout Crowley's Ceremonial magic, magical and philosophical writings, notably appearing in the ''Liber XV, The Gnostic Mass, Gnostic Mass''. Crowley discusses its symbolism briefly in section F of ''Liber Samekh'' and in detail in chapter 7 of ''Magick (Book 4)''.

Modern reception

The Brahmic script ''Om''-ligature has become widely recognized in Western counterculture since the 1960s, mostly in its standard

form (), but the Tibetan script, Tibetan ''Om'' () has also gained limited currency in popular culture.

In meditation

Meditating and chanting of ''Om'' can be done by first concentrating on a picture of ''Om'' and then effortlessly mentally chanting the mantra. Meditating and mental chanting have been said to improve the physiological state of the person by increasing alertness and sensory sensitivity.

Notes

References

Bibliography

* * *

Common names and synonyms

Origin and spiritual significance

Pronunciation

Written representations

South Asia

East and Southeast Asia

Representation in various scripts

Northern Brahmic

Southern Brahmic

Non-Brahmic

Hinduism

Vedas

Brahmanas

= Aitareya Brahmana

Upanishads

= Chandogya Upanishad

= Katha Upanishad

= Maitri Upanishad

= Mundaka Upanishad

= Mandukya Upanishad

= Shvetashvatara Upanishad

= Ganapati Upanishad

Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana

Ramayana

''Bhagavad Gita''

Puranas

Vaishnava traditions

Shaiva traditions

Shakta traditions

Other texts

Yoga Sutra

Chaitanya Charitamrita

Tantrasāra

Jainism

Buddhism

Tibetan Buddhism and Vajrayana

Japanese Buddhism

''A-un''

''Niō'' guardian kings and ''komainu'' lion-dogs

Sikhism

Thelema

Modern reception

In meditation

See also

Notes

References

Bibliography

Further reading