Since its emergence in the 1970s,

Neopaganism Modern paganism, also known as contemporary paganism and neopaganism, spans a range of new religious movements variously influenced by the Paganism, beliefs of pre-modern peoples across Europe, North Africa, and the Near East. Despite some comm ...

(') in

German-speaking Europe This article details the geographical distribution of speakers of the German language, regardless of the legislative status within the countries where it is spoken. In addition to the Germanosphere () in Europe, German-speaking minority languag ...

has diversified into a wide array of traditions, particularly during the

New Age New Age is a range of Spirituality, spiritual or Religion, religious practices and beliefs that rapidly grew in Western world, Western society during the early 1970s. Its highly eclecticism, eclectic and unsystematic structure makes a precise d ...

boom of the 1980s. Schmid (2006) distinguishes four main currents: *

Germanic neopaganism Heathenry, also termed Heathenism, contemporary Germanic Paganism, or Germanic Neopaganism, is a modern pagan religion. Scholars of religious studies classify it as a new religious movement. Developed in Europe during the early 20th century ...

/Ásatrú *

Wicca Wicca (), also known as "The Craft", is a Modern paganism, modern pagan, syncretic, Earth religion, Earth-centred religion. Considered a new religious movement by Religious studies, scholars of religion, the path evolved from Western esote ...

Neoshamanism Neoshamanism (or neo-shamanism), refers to new forms of shamanism, where it usually means shamanism practiced by Western people as a type of New Age spirituality, without a connection to traditional shamanic societies. It is sometimes also used fo ...

History

Early forms

Neopaganism in Germany and Austria has been strongly influenced by the

occultist The occult () is a category of esoteric or supernatural beliefs and practices which generally fall outside the scope of organized religion and science, encompassing phenomena involving a 'hidden' or 'secret' agency, such as magic and mystic ...

Germanic mysticism Ariosophy and Armanism are esoteric ideological systems that were largely developed by Jörg Lanz von Liebenfels and Guido von List, respectively, in Austria between 1890 and 1930. The term 'Ariosophy', which translates to ''wisdom of the Arya ...

pioneered by

Guido von List Guido Karl Anton List (5 October 1848 – 17 May 1919), better known as Guido von List, was an Austrian occultist, journalist, playwright, and novelist. He expounded a modern Pagan new religious movement known as Wotanism, which he claimed w ...

and Jörg Lanz von Liebenfels in the 1890 to 1930 period. A

Guido von List Society Guido Karl Anton List (5 October 1848 – 17 May 1919), better known as Guido von List, was an Austrian occultist, journalist, playwright, and novelist. He expounded a modern Pagan new religious movement known as Wotanism, which he claimed was ...

was founded 1908. Other early groups influenced by List were the '' Deutschgläubige Gemeinschaft'' (1911), the ''

Germanenorden The Germanenorden (Germanic or Teutonic Order) was an occultist and '' völkisch'' secret society in early 20th-century Germany. History The Germanenorden was founded in Berlin in 1912 by Theodor Fritsch and several prominent German occultists ...

'' (1912) and the ''Germanische Glaubens-Gemeinschaft'' (1907). The contemporary term ''Deutschgläubig'' for these movements may be translated as either "German Faith", " Teutonic Faith" or in the more archaic usage of ''

Deutsch Deutsch ( , ) or Deutsche ( , ) may refer to: * or : the German language or in particular Standard German, spoken in central European countries and other places *Old High German language refers to Deutsch as a way to define the primary characteris ...

'' as "

folk belief In folkloristics, folk belief or folk-belief is a broad genre of folklore that is often expressed in narratives, customs, rituals, foodways, proverbs, and rhymes. It also includes a wide variety of behaviors, expressions, and beliefs. Examples o ...

". Several of these groups came together in 1933 forming an ''Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Deutschen Glaubensbewegung''. There was however no unified take on the contents of a ''Deutschgläubig'' religiosity, and approaches varied from a "national Christianity" based on the

Arianism Arianism (, ) is a Christology, Christological doctrine which rejects the traditional notion of the Trinity and considers Jesus to be a creation of God, and therefore distinct from God. It is named after its major proponent, Arius (). It is co ...

of the Goths,

German mysticism The Friends of God (German: Gottesfreunde; or gotesvriunde) was a medieval mystical group of both ecclesiastical and lay persons within the Catholic Church (though it nearly became a separate sect) and a center of German mysticism. It was founde ...

, Humanism and

free thought Freethought (sometimes spelled free thought) is an unorthodox attitude or belief. A freethinker holds that beliefs should not be formed on the basis of authority, tradition, revelation, or dogma, and should instead be reached by other met ...

, as well as racialist ideas of a native

Nordic Nordic most commonly refers to: * Nordic countries, the northern European countries of Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden, and their North Atlantic territories * Scandinavia, a cultural, historical and ethno-linguistic region in northern ...

Aryan ''Aryan'' (), or ''Arya'' (borrowed from Sanskrit ''ārya''), Oxford English Dictionary Online 2024, s.v. ''Aryan'' (adj. & n.); ''Arya'' (n.)''.'' is a term originating from the ethno-cultural self-designation of the Indo-Iranians. It stood ...

religion. The radical free-thinking tendency combined with the Nordicist one to the effect of pronounced hostility towards Christianity and the Church. Krause et al. (1977:557) distinguish four basic types subsumed under ''Deutschgläubig'': #the ''Deutscher Glaube'' of

Jakob Wilhelm Hauer Jakob Wilhelm Hauer (4 April 1881 in Ditzingen, Württemberg – 18 February 1962 in Tübingen) was a German Indologist and religious studies writer. He was the founder of the German Faith Movement. Biography Initially trained in the famil ...

, inspired by influences of Hinduism and mysticism combined with elements of

Neoplatonism Neoplatonism is a version of Platonic philosophy that emerged in the 3rd century AD against the background of Hellenistic philosophy and religion. The term does not encapsulate a set of ideas as much as a series of thinkers. Among the common id ...

, Humanism, Renaissance and the

German classics German literature () comprises those literature, literary texts written in the German language. This includes literature written in Germany, Austria, the German parts of Switzerland and Belgium, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, South Tyrol in Italy ...

#"Nordic" religion embraced as the native religion of the

Nordic race The Nordic race is an obsolete racial classification of humans based on a now-disproven theory of biological race. It was once considered a race or one of the putative sub-races into which some late-19th to mid-20th century anthropologists di ...

, rejecting Christianity on grounds of being a foreign ("Semitic") intrusion. This branch is the closest to later "folkish"

, postulating that a people's native religion is based on a "racial soul" (''Rassenseele''), comparable to current ideas of

Metagenetics Stephen Anthony McNallen (born October 15, 1948) is an American proponent of Heathenry, a modern Pagan new religious movement, and a white nationalist activist. He founded the Asatru Folk Assembly (AFA), which he led from 1994 until 2016, havi ...

in "folkish" neopaganism.

Ludwig Fahrenkrog Ludwig Fahrenkrog (20 October 1867 – 27 October 1952) was a German painter, illustrator, sculptor and writer. He was born in Rendsburg, Prussia, in 1867. He started his career as an artist in his youth, and attended the Berlin Royal Art A ...

and his ''

Germanische Glaubens-Gemeinschaft Since its emergence in the 1970s, Neopaganism (') in German-speaking Europe has diversified into a wide array of traditions, particularly during the New Age boom of the 1980s. Schmid (2006) distinguishes four main currents: * Germanic neopaganis ...

'' represent a specifically Germanic approach within the "Nordic" group. #The political approach as represented by

Alfred Rosenberg Alfred Ernst Rosenberg ( – 16 October 1946) was a Baltic German Nazi theorist and ideologue. Rosenberg was first introduced to Adolf Hitler by Dietrich Eckart and he held several important posts in the Nazi government. He was the head o ...

which rejects religiosity in favour of pure '' völkisch'' political ideology. #

Mathilde Ludendorff Mathilde Friederike Karoline Ludendorff (born Mathilde Spieß; 4 October 1877 – 24 June 1966) was a German psychiatrist and author on several subjects such as philosophy, politics, and religion. She was a leading figure in the Völkisch move ...

's "ethnocentric soteriology" as taken up by the ''

Tannenbergbund The ''Tannenbergbund'' (, Tannenberg Union, TB) was a nationalist German political society formed in September 1925 at the instigation of Konstantin Hierl under the patronage of the former German Army general Erich Ludendorff. Part of the Völkis ...

'' (1925).

Third Reich and aftermath

The ''

Thule Society The Thule Society (; ), originally the ('Study Group for Germanic Antiquity'), was a German occultist and group founded in Munich shortly after World War I, named after a mythical northern country in Greek legend. The society is notable chie ...

'' originated as an offshoot of the ''Germanenorden'' in 1917, and notoriously became associated with the

Deutsche Arbeiterpartei The German Workers' Party (, DAP) was a short-lived far-right political party established in the Weimar Republic after World War I. It only lasted from 5 January 1919 until 24 February 1920. The DAP was the precursor of the National Socialist ...

in 1919 and thus involved in the formative phase of the

Nazi Party The Nazi Party, officially the National Socialist German Workers' Party ( or NSDAP), was a far-right politics, far-right political party in Germany active between 1920 and 1945 that created and supported the ideology of Nazism. Its precursor ...

. By the rise of the

Third Reich Nazi Germany, officially known as the German Reich and later the Greater German Reich, was the German state between 1933 and 1945, when Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party controlled the country, transforming it into a totalitarian dictat ...

in 1933, the Thule society had been dissolved, and esoteric organisations (including völkisch occultists) were suppressed by the Nazi regime, many closed down by anti-Masonic legislation in 1935. Nevertheless, some elements of Germanic mysticism found reflection in the symbolism employed by the Nazis, mostly due to

Heinrich Himmler Heinrich Luitpold Himmler (; 7 October 1900 – 23 May 1945) was a German Nazism, Nazi politician and military leader who was the 4th of the (Protection Squadron; SS), a leading member of the Nazi Party, and one of the most powerful p ...

's interest in the occult and sponsorship of the Austrian Ariosophist

Karl Wiligut Karl Maria Wiligut (alias Weisthor, Jarl Widar, Lobesam; 10 December 1866 – 3 January 1946) was an Austrian Völkisch occultist and soldier. He served in the Austro-Hungarian Army during World War I and was a leading figure in the Irminism ...

. As early as 1940, the occult scholar and folklorist

Lewis Spence James Lewis Thomas Chalmers Spence (25 November 1874 – 3 March 1955) was a Scottish journalist, poet, author, folklorist and occult scholar. Spence was a Fellow of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, and vice- ...

identified a

neopagan Modern paganism, also known as contemporary paganism and neopaganism, spans a range of new religious movements variously influenced by the beliefs of pre-modern peoples across Europe, North Africa, and the Near East. Despite some common simila ...

undercurrent in Nazism, for which he largely blamed

, and which he equated with "

satanism Satanism refers to a group of religious, ideological, or philosophical beliefs based on Satan—particularly his worship or veneration. Because of the ties to the historical Abrahamic religious figure, Satanism—as well as other religious ...

". This notion of a

Nazi occultism The association of Nazism with occultism occurs in a wide range of theories, speculation, and research into the origins of Nazism and into Nazism's possible relationship with various occult traditions. Such ideas have flourished as a part of po ...

has been relativized as superficial.

Heinz Höhne Heinz Höhne (1926 – 27 March 2010) was a German journalist and author, who specialized in Third Reich military and West German Cold War foreign intelligence history. Biography Born in Berlin in 1926, Höhne was educated there until he was ...

, an authority on the SS, observes that "Himmler's neo-pagan customs remained primarily a paper exercise". In

Hamburg Hamburg (, ; ), officially the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg,. is the List of cities in Germany by population, second-largest city in Germany after Berlin and List of cities in the European Union by population within city limits, 7th-lar ...

which was considered a stronghold, only 0.49% of the inhabitants identified as belonging to the neopagan faith movement (in 1937). With the fall of the Third Reich, the ''Deutschgläubig'' movement was finished, appearing suspect at least during the period of

denazification Denazification () was an Allied initiative to rid German and Austrian society, culture, press, economy, judiciary, and politics of the Nazi ideology following the Second World War. It was carried out by removing those who had been Nazi Par ...

(Krause 1977:558). But völkisch religiosity began to re-surface as early as 1951 with the '' Artgemeinschaft'' and the '' Deutsche Unitarier''.

1970s to 1980s

Neopaganism saw a revival in the 1970s, partly by US influence, partly by the revival of pre-war occultist societies. The ''Armanenorden'' was re-established in 1976. The ''Heidnische Gemeinschaft'' (HG; "Heathen Community") was founded in 1985 by

Géza von Neményi Géza () is a Hungarian given name and may refer to any of the following: As regnal or forename * Géza, Grand Prince of the Hungarians * Géza I of Hungary, King of Hungary * Géza II of Hungary, King of Hungary * Géza, son of Géza II of Hungar ...

, formerly of the Armanenorder, and in contrast to that movement explicitly distances itself from extreme-right ideas. Members are urged to forgo racial and fascist ideals, to have a positive and respectful attitude towards the earth and nature, to participate in democracy instead of aiming for totalitarianism, to promote equality of the sexes, and to worship the gods whose existence underlies cultural tradition. The 1980s were dominated by the

movement, giving rise to a significant neopagan movement detached in origin from the ''völkisch'' or ''deutschgläubig'' history of German neopaganism.

and the

Goddess movement The Goddess movement is a Modern Paganism, revivalistic Neopagan New religious movement, religious movement which includes Spirituality, spiritual beliefs and practices that emerged primarily in the United States in the late 1960s and predominant ...

begins to take hold in German feminist subculture in this period, e.g. with

Heide Göttner-Abendroth Heide Göttner-Abendroth (born February 8, 1941, in Langewiesen, Nazi Germany, Germany) is a German feminist advocating ''matriarchy studies'' (also ''modern matriarchal studies''), focusing on the study of matriarchy, matriarchal or matrilineal soc ...

, whose "International Academy for Modern Matriarchal Studies and Matriarchal Spirituality" (HAGIA) was founded in 1986. The German

movement is dominated by the US

feminist Feminism is a range of socio-political movements and ideology, ideologies that aim to define and establish the political, economic, personal, and social gender equality, equality of the sexes. Feminism holds the position that modern soci ...

currents of

Dianic Wicca Dianic Wicca, also known as Dianic Witchcraft, and, to some also as "Dianism," "Dianic Feminist Witchcraft," or simply "Feminist Witchcraft"' is a modern pagan goddess tradition focused on female experience and empowerment. Leadership is by wo ...

and the ''

Reclaiming In linguistics, reappropriation, reclamation, or resignification is the cultural process by which a group reclaims words or artifacts that were previously used in a way disparaging of that group. It is a specific form of a semantic change (i. ...

'' community advocating radical

environmentalism Environmentalism is a broad philosophy, ideology, and social movement about supporting life, habitats, and surroundings. While environmentalism focuses more on the environmental and nature-related aspects of green ideology and politics, ecolog ...

(REMID).

1990s to present

Germanic neopaganism in Germany

A renewed interest in Germanic neopaganism or

Asatru Heathenry, also termed Heathenism, contemporary Germanic Paganism, or Germanic Neopaganism, is a modern pagan religion. Scholars of religious studies classify it as a new religious movement. Developed in Europe during the early 20th century, ...

in particular becomes apparent in the later 1990s, based on inspiration from the English-speaking world rather than historical ''deutschgläubig'' groups, with the foundation of the ''Rabenclan'' (1994) and of a German chapter of

Odinic Rite The Odinic Rite (OR) is a reconstructionist religious organisation named after the god Odin. It conceives itself as a " folkish" Heathen movement concerned with Germanic paganism, mythology, folklore, and runes. As a white supremacist organizati ...

in 1995, followed by ''Nornirs Ætt'' in 1997 and the

Eldaring Eldaring is a German heathen organisation founded in 2000 and launched in 2002. It operates as an umbrella organisation for local groups and independent practitioners. History Eldaring began in 2000 as a private Internet mailing list before it o ...

as a chapter of the US

The Troth The Troth, formerly the Ring of Troth, is an American-based international heathen organization.On its mai ...

in 2000. Fahrenkrog's ''Germanische Glaubens-Gemeinschaft'' was reactivated in 1991 by Géza von Neményi, who had received the organization's archives from Dessel as the result of a hostile split of the ''Heidnische Gemeinschaft'', which von Neményi had founded in 1985. Von Neményi had been a member of the board of the

Green Party A green party is a formally organized political party based on the principles of green politics, such as environmentalism and social justice. Green party platforms typically embrace Social democracy, social democratic economic policies and fo ...

in Berlin until 1985, when he was expelled together with his brother for alleged connections to the neo-Nazi milieu, an accusation which both men denied. Subsequently, the GGG successfully sued the '' Artgemeinschaft'', which also claimed to be the legal successor of Fahrenkrog's organization. However, in 1995 the GGG denied being a continuation of Fahrenkrog's organization. In 1997, the GGG again claimed to have been founded in 1907. Since the foundation/reactivation of GGG, von Neményi has claimed the title of '' Allsherjargode'' (an Icelandic title translating approximately to "high priest") and position of a spiritual leader, a claim rejected and mocked by most other neopagan groups in Germany. Within Germanic neopaganism in Germany in particular, debate on neopaganism and neo-Nazism is very prominent and controversial. The large majority of German neopagans vehemently renounce all right extremist associations, especially since a 1996 case of a

Sauerland The Sauerland () is a rural, hilly area spreading across most of the south-eastern part of the States of Germany, German federal state of North Rhine-Westphalia, in parts heavily forested and, apart from the major valleys, sparsely inhabited. ...

neo-Nazi who had confessed to four murders which he claimed were inspired by the command of

Odin Odin (; from ) is a widely revered god in Norse mythology and Germanic paganism. Most surviving information on Odin comes from Norse mythology, but he figures prominently in the recorded history of Northern Europe. This includes the Roman Em ...

. The controversy is kept alive because there remain a number of neo-Nazi or far-right neopagan groups, with

Jürgen Rieger Jürgen Hans Paul Rieger (11 May 1946 – 29 October 2009) was a Hamburg lawyer, avowed anti-semite, and deputy chairman of the National Democratic Party of Germany (NPD) (as of October 2009), known for his Holocaust denial. Rieger represent ...

's ''Artgemeinschaft'' (Rieger died 2009) notoriously domain squatting asatru.de since 1999.Archive.org link
/ref> The ''Rabenclan'' and ''Nornirs Ætt'' groups were particularly prominent in this respect in the 1990s, with their

anti-racist Anti-racism encompasses a range of ideas and political actions which are meant to counter racial prejudice, systemic racism, and the oppression of specific racial groups. Anti-racism is usually structured around conscious efforts and delibera ...

"Ariosophy project" actively denouncing right extremists within the German neopagan movement. Other groups, like the ''Germanische Glaubens-Gemeinschaft'' do not take a clear position with regard to '' völkisch'' or New Right schools of thoughts. The

avoids taking any political stance and rejects the "folkish" vs. "universalist" division as inapplicable. The

Verein für germanisches Heidentum The (, ), abbreviated VfGH, is a Germanic neopagan organisation in Germany. It began in 1994 as the German chapter of the British Odinic Rite and was called the Odinic Rite Deutschland. It became independent in 2004 and changed its name in 2 ...

(VfGH), formerly "Odinic Rite Deutschland" has been associated with the folkish

in Britain from 1995, but later severed organisational ties and was renamed to its present name in 2006. The "folkish" concept of

advocated in US Asatru by

Stephen McNallen Stephen Anthony McNallen (born October 15, 1948) is an American proponent of Heathenry, a modern Pagan new religious movement, and a white nationalist activist. He founded the Asatru Folk Assembly (AFA), which he led from 1994 until 2016, ha ...

was introduced into German discourse by Volker "Stilkam" Wagner of Odinic Rite Deutschland, a position harshly attacked by the Rabenclan as völkisch or New Right ideology.

Austria and Switzerland

Celtic neopaganism and neo-Druidism is particularly popular in

Austria Austria, formally the Republic of Austria, is a landlocked country in Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps. It is a federation of nine Federal states of Austria, states, of which the capital Vienna is the List of largest cities in Aust ...

, by virtue of Austria being the location of the Proto-Celtic

Hallstatt culture The Hallstatt culture was the predominant Western Europe, Western and Central European archaeological culture of the Late Bronze Age Europe, Bronze Age (Hallstatt A, Hallstatt B) from the 12th to 8th centuries BC and Early Iron Age Europe (Hallst ...

. The ''Keltendorf'' in

Diex Diex (; ) is a town in the district of Völkermarkt (district), Völkermarkt in Austrian state of Carinthia (state), Carinthia. It is known for its Gothic fortified church on a hilltop. Geography Diex lies in southeast Carinthia on the southern s ...

Kärnten Carinthia ( ; ; ) is the southernmost and least densely populated Austrian state, in the Eastern Alps, and is noted for its mountains and lakes. The Lake Wolayer is a mountain lake on the Carinthian side of the Carnic Main Ridge, near the Pl ...

combines archaeological reconstruction with "European

geomancy Geomancy, a compound of Greek roots denoting "earth divination", was originally used to mean methods of divination that interpret geographic features, markings on the ground, or the patterns formed by soil, rock (geology), rocks, or sand. Its d ...

". The ''Europäisch Keltische Gemeinschaft'' has been active since 1998. The

Pagan Federation The Pagan Federation is a UK-based religious advocacy group. Formed in 1971 as the Pagan Front, the group campaigns for the religious rights of Neo-pagans with the aim of educating both civic bodies and the general public. The Pagan Federati ...

has chapters in Austria and Germany. There is no organized neopagan group in Switzerland, the

catering also to Swiss and Austrian members. A loose network centered around interest in

Alpine paganism The central and eastern Alps of Europe are rich in folklore traditions dating back to pre-Christian times, with surviving elements originating from Germanic, Gaulish (Gallo-Roman), Slavic ( Carantanian) and Raetian culture. Survival through t ...

has been active in Switzerland under the name Firner Situ (the Old High German translation of ''Forn Sed'') since 2006.

References

Literature

* Georg Schmid
Neuheidentum
(2002/2006)

(REMID) * Martin Schwarz,

' * Daniel Junker (ed.), ''Heidnisches Jahrbuch 2007'', Verlag Daniel Junker, . * Daniel Junker, ''Die Germanische Glaubens-Gemeinschaft, Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte völkischer Religiosität in der Weimarer Republik'' (2002), * GardenStone, ''Der germanische Götterglaube. Asatru - eine moderne Religion aus alten Zeiten'', Arun-Verlag (2003), . * , ''Neue Rechte und ''Heidentum.'' Zur Funktionalität eines ideologischen Konstrukts'', Peter Lang (2006), . * Krause et al. (eds.), ''Theologische Realenzyklopädie'', Walter de Gruyter (1977), , s.v. " Deutschgläubige Bewegung" pp. 554ff. * Hunt, Stephen (2003). ''Alternative Religions: A Sociological Introduction''. Burlington: Ashgate Publishing Company. . {{Neopaganism Modern paganism in Germany

Germany Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its sixteen States of Germany, constituent states have a total popu ...

Religion in Austria Religion in Germany