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The portrayal of Native Americans in television and films concerns indigenous roles in cinema, particularly their depiction in
Hollywood Hollywood usually refers to: * Hollywood, Los Angeles, a neighborhood in California * Hollywood, a metonym for the cinema of the United States Hollywood may also refer to: Places United States * Hollywood District (disambiguation) * Hollywood ...
productions. Especially in the
Western Western may refer to: Places *Western, Nebraska, a village in the US *Western, New York, a town in the US *Western Creek, Tasmania, a locality in Australia *Western Junction, Tasmania, a locality in Australia *Western world, countries that id ...
genre, Native American
stock character A stock character, also known as a character archetype, is a type of character in a narrative (e.g. a novel, play, television show, or film) whom audiences recognize across many narratives or as part of a storytelling tradition or convention. Th ...
s can reflect contemporary and historical perceptions of Native Americans and the
Wild West The American frontier, also known as the Old West, and popularly known as the Wild West, encompasses the geography, history, folklore, and culture associated with the forward wave of American expansion in mainland North America that bega ...
. The portrayal of Native Americans in American cinema has, since the beginning of the motion picture industry, employed harmful stereotypes, especially the archetypes of Native Americans as violent
barbarian A barbarian is a person or tribe of people that is perceived to be primitive, savage and warlike. Many cultures have referred to other cultures as barbarians, sometimes out of misunderstanding and sometimes out of prejudice. A "barbarian" may ...
s and noble and peaceful savages. A variety of images appeared from the early to mid 1930s, and by the late 1930s negative images briefly dominated Westerns. In 1950, the watershed film '' Broken Arrow'' appeared, which many credit as the first postwar Western to depict Native Americans sympathetically. Starting in the 1990s, Native American filmmakers have attempted to make
independent film An independent film, independent movie, indie film, or indie movie is a feature film or short film that is film production, produced outside the Major film studios, major film studio system in addition to being produced and distributed by independ ...
s that work to represent the depth and complexity of indigenous peoples as people and provide a realistic account of their culture. Contemporary Native filmmakers have employed the use of visual sovereignty, defined by Seneca scholar Michelle H. Raheja as "a way of reimagining Native-centered articulations of self-representation and autonomy that engage the powerful ideologies of mass media," to take back the right to tell their own stories.Raheja, Michelle H. "Visual Sovereignty." Native Studies Keywords, pp. 25–34., .


History


Origins

Circa the 1860s, stories involving heroic Indian figures were proliferated in
dime novel The dime novel is a form of late 19th-century and early 20th-century American popular fiction issued in series of inexpensive paperbound editions. The term ''dime novel'' has been used as a catchall term for several different but related form ...
s. From the 1870s to the 1910s,
Wild West shows Wild West shows were traveling vaudeville performances in the United States and Europe that existed around 1870–1920. The shows began as theatrical stage productions and evolved into open-air shows that depicted romanticized stereotypes of co ...
such as
Buffalo Bill William Frederick Cody (February 26, 1846January 10, 1917), better known as Buffalo Bill, was an American soldier, bison hunter, and showman. One of the most famous figures of the American Old West, Cody started his legend at the young age ...
's ''Wild West Show'' popularized conflict between cowboys and Indians. These stage performances toured America and Europe, presenting romanticized fiction about the
American frontier The American frontier, also known as the Old West, and popularly known as the Wild West, encompasses the Geography of the United States, geography, History of the United States, history, Folklore of the United States, folklore, and Cultur ...
which some audiences misunderstood as history. In 1912, Buffalo Bill Cody produced a three-minute silent film titled ''The Life of Buffalo Bill,'' starring himself''.'' In his 1917 novel, Cody identified himself as an "Indian fighter," and his wild west shows led to widespread misrepresentation of Native Americans, despite involvement with Native American actors. Some Native actors chose to portray the shows' chiefs as belligerent, while others portrayed their roles with humble dignity - possibly creating the bloodthirsty savage & noble Indian dichotomy, or "double stereotype."


Silent film era

In 1908, D.W. Griffith released '' The Red Man and the Child.'' The film featured a sympathetic depiction of Native American characters; however, critics describe their portrayal as a "helpless Indian race...forced to recede before the advancing white." Similar depictions included ''The Indian Runner's Romance'' (1909) and '' The Red Man's View'' (1909). By 1910, one-fifth of
American films This is a list of films produced by the American film industry from the earliest films of the 1890s to the present. 1890s * List of American films of the 1890s 1900s * List of American films of 1900 * List of American films of 1901 * List ...
were
Westerns The Western is a genre of fiction typically set in the American frontier (commonly referred to as the "Old West" or the "Wild West") between the California Gold Rush of 1849 and the closing of the frontier in 1890, and commonly associated wit ...
. Circa 1910, Nanticoke film director
James Young Deer James Young Deer (April 1, 1876 – April 6, 1946), also known as J. Younger Johnson or Jim Young Deer, was born James Young Johnson in Washington, D.C. Although he was identified in the early Hollywood trade paper ''Moving Picture World'' as of t ...
was hired by
Pathé Pathé SAS (; styled as PATHÉ!) is a French major film production and distribution company, owning a number of cinema chains through its subsidiary Pathé Cinémas and television networks across Europe. It is the name of a network of Fren ...
to produce accurate Native American silent films with positive portrayals. Deer, an actor, writer, and director, was involved in the production of over 150 movies, an example being ''White Fawn's Devotion: A Play Acted by a Tribe of Red Indians in America''. In 1912,
D. W. Griffith David Wark Griffith (January 22, 1875 – July 23, 1948) was an American film director. Considered one of the most influential figures in the history of the motion picture, he pioneered many aspects of film editing and expanded the art of the n ...
released ''A Pueblo Legend'' and ''The Massacre'', which both failed to show Native Americans in a positive light. ''The Massacre'' romanticized
Custer George Armstrong Custer (December 5, 1839 – June 25, 1876) was a United States Army officer and cavalry commander in the American Civil War and the American Indian Wars. Custer graduated from the United States Military Academy at West Point ...
's roles in the
Indian Wars The American Indian Wars, also known as the American Frontier Wars, and the Indian Wars, was a conflict initially fought by European colonial empires, the United States, and briefly the Confederate States of America and Republic of Texas agains ...
, with recurring scenes of white mother struggling to protect her infant, while a Native American mother is killed and collapses offscreen. Griffith would later become infamous for his creation of ''The'' ''Birth of a Nation'', a
racist Racism is the belief that groups of humans possess different behavioral traits corresponding to inherited attributes and can be divided based on the superiority of one Race (human categorization), race or ethnicity over another. It may also me ...
propaganda film A propaganda film is a film that involves some form of propaganda. Propaganda films spread and promote certain ideas that are usually religious, political, or cultural in nature. A propaganda film is made with the intent that the viewer will ad ...
that portrayed the KKK as heroic. In 1914,
Theodore Wharton Theodore Wharton (1875–1931) was an American film director, producer and writer. He directed 48 films in the 1910s and 1920s, including the 1915 '' The New Adventures of J. Rufus Wallingford'' featuring Oliver Hardy. Biography Wharton was bo ...
directed '' The Indian War Refought: The Wars for Civilization in America'' which romanticized multiple battles including the 1890
Wounded Knee Massacre The Wounded Knee Massacre, also known as the Battle of Wounded Knee, involved nearly three hundred Lakota people killed by soldiers of the United States Army. More than 250 people of the Lakota were killed and 51 wounded (4 men and 47 women a ...
, wherein U.S. Army soldiers killed over 250 Lakota Indians, including men, women, and children, and buried them in a
mass grave A mass grave is a grave containing multiple human corpses, which may or may Unidentified decedent, not be identified prior to burial. The United Nations has defined a criminal mass grave as a burial site containing three or more victims of exec ...
. This film depicted the massacre as a battle; it was directed by the War Department and approved by the
United States government The Federal Government of the United States of America (U.S. federal government or U.S. government) is the Federation#Federal governments, national government of the United States. The U.S. federal government is composed of three distinct ...
. It can be therefore considered a
propaganda Propaganda is communication that is primarily used to influence or persuade an audience to further an agenda, which may not be objective and may be selectively presenting facts to encourage a particular synthesis or perception, or using loaded l ...
film, with the goal of rationalizing the government's actions. Despite its historical inaccuracies, a 1914 ''Moving Picture World'' advertisement claims,
This most realistic film of the age...has been APPROVED BY THE
UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT The Federal Government of the United States of America (U.S. federal government or U.S. government) is the Federation#Federal governments, national government of the United States. The U.S. federal government is composed of three distinct ...
and made under the DIRECTION OF THE WAR DEPARTMENT...Historically Correct and all scenes TAKEN ON THE EXACT LOCATION of the original battles.
In 1914, ethnologist
Edward S. Curtis Edward Sheriff Curtis (February 19, 1868 – October 19, 1952; sometimes given as Edward Sherriff Curtis) was an American photographer and ethnologist whose work focused on the American West and Native American people. Sometimes referred to a ...
directed silent film '' In the Land of the Head Hunters'', a fictionalized documentary about the lives and culture of Kwakwakaʼwakw people of the
Queen Charlotte Strait Queen Charlotte Strait is a strait between Vancouver Island and the mainland of British Columbia, Canada. It connects Queen Charlotte Sound with Johnstone Strait and Discovery Passage and via them to the Strait of Georgia and Puget Sound. It for ...
in
Canada Canada is a country in North America. Its Provinces and territories of Canada, ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, making it the world's List of coun ...
. Although Curtis wrote and directed the film, all of its actors were entirely
Kwakwakaʼwakw The Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw (), also known as the Kwakiutl (; "Kwakʼwala-speaking peoples"), are an indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, indigenous group of the Pacific Northwest Coast, in southwestern Canada. Their total population, ...
. In 1918, vaudeville performer
Will Rogers William Penn Adair Rogers (November 4, 1879 – August 15, 1935) was an American vaudeville performer, actor, and humorous social commentator. He was born as a citizen of the Cherokee Nation, in the Indian Territory (now part of Oklahoma ...
(Cherokee, 1879–1935) made his film debut with '' Laughing Bill Hyde''. He starred in numerous silent films, made the transition to talkies, began producing his own films, and went on to become the highest paid entertainer in Hollywood. The 1930 silent film ''The Silent Enemy'' is an example of a film that focuses on Native American characters prior to colonization. The film dramatizes a famine experienced by the
Ojibwe The Ojibwe (; Ojibwe writing systems#Ojibwe syllabics, syll.: ᐅᒋᐺ; plural: ''Ojibweg'' ᐅᒋᐺᒃ) are an Anishinaabe people whose homeland (''Ojibwewaki'' ᐅᒋᐺᐘᑭ) covers much of the Great Lakes region and the Great Plains, n ...
during the
post-classical era In Human history, world history, post-classical history refers to the period from about 500 CE to 1500 CE, roughly corresponding to the European Middle Ages. The period is characterized by the expansion of civilizations geographically an ...
and incorporates
folklore Folklore is the body of expressive culture shared by a particular group of people, culture or subculture. This includes oral traditions such as Narrative, tales, myths, legends, proverbs, Poetry, poems, jokes, and other oral traditions. This also ...
, spiritual visions, and
religious Religion is a range of social- cultural systems, including designated behaviors and practices, morals, beliefs, worldviews, texts, sanctified places, prophecies, ethics, or organizations, that generally relate humanity to supernatural ...
elements. The film begins with a sound-synchronized speech in English by
Ojibwe The Ojibwe (; Ojibwe writing systems#Ojibwe syllabics, syll.: ᐅᒋᐺ; plural: ''Ojibweg'' ᐅᒋᐺᒃ) are an Anishinaabe people whose homeland (''Ojibwewaki'' ᐅᒋᐺᐘᑭ) covers much of the Great Lakes region and the Great Plains, n ...
chief and activist Chauncey Yellow Robe who stars in the film. Early films featuring Native characters varied in their depictions. Some of these characters were often shown wearing leather clothing with feathers in their hair or with elaborate feather headdresses. Authors have argued that Native communities were often depicted as cruel societies that sought out constant warfare and vengeance against white characters. But while some individual Native characters appeared as drunkards, cruel, or unintelligent, others, like those in ''The Red Man and the Child'' (1908), ''A Mohawk's Way'' (1910), and ''The Red Girl and the Child'' (1910), were friends or allies to white settlers. These depictions however were often one-dimensional and perpetuated the idea that the only good Native is one that helps white settlers.Green, Rayna. "The Pocahontas Perplex: The Image of Indian Women in American Culture." Intercultural and Interracial Relations, 1993, pp. 150–166., . A few successful Indian/white marriages did occur in film during these early years, such as ''A Cry from the Wilderness'' (1909), ''A Leap for Life'' (1910) and ''The Indian Land Grab'' (1911). Other depictions were generalized stereotypes and used largely for aesthetic purposes and many tribes were represented. Feather headdresses were culturally and historically correct for approximately two dozen Plains tribes, and those of the American southwest were often wearing traditional clothing. This was done to create a more recognizable character for white audiences to view as "indian". Many directors did not care about accuracy when it came to language either, with Native actors being asked to speak in their native language no matter what tribe they are supposed to be from in the film. These discrepancies worked to create the Hollywood Indian stereotype prevalent within the western genre. Beverly R. Singer argues that "Despite the fact that a diversity of indigenous peoples had a legal and historical significance in the formation of every new country founded in the Western Hemisphere, in the United States and Canada the term 'Indians' became a hegemonic designation implying that they were all the same in regards to culture, behavior, language, and social organization". Other scholars argued these films in fact showed a wide range of depictions of Native people from noble to sympathetic.


Later films

The Revisionist Western, also known as a Modern Western or an Anti-Western, is a subgenre of Western films that began circa 1960. This subgenre is characterized by a darker and more cynical tone that was generally not present in earlier Western films.


Revisionist Westerns featuring Native characters

*''
Two Rode Together ''Two Rode Together'' is a 1961 American Western film directed by John Ford and starring James Stewart, Richard Widmark, and Shirley Jones. The supporting cast includes Linda Cristal, Andy Devine, and John McIntire. The film was based upon ...
'' (1961) *''
The Deadly Companions ''The Deadly Companions'' is a 1961 American Western (genre), Western and war film directed by Sam Peckinpah and starring Maureen O'Hara, Brian Keith, Steve Cochran, and Chill Wills. Based on the novel of the same name by A. S. Fleischman, ...
'' (1961) *''Bitter Wind'' (1963) *''
Navajo Joe ''Navajo Joe'' is a 1966 spaghetti Western film directed by Sergio Corbucci and starring Burt Reynolds as the titular Navajo Indian who opposes a group of bandits responsible for killing his tribe. Plot Having massacred an Indian village with ...
'' (1966) * ''Hombre'' (1967) *'' Tell Them Willie Boy Is Here'' (1969) *''
Soldier Blue ''Soldier Blue'' is a 1970 American revisionist Western film directed by Ralph Nelson and starring Candice Bergen, Peter Strauss, and Donald Pleasence. Adapted by John Gay from the novel ''Arrow in the Sun'' by T.V. Olsen, it is inspired by ...
'' (1970) * ''Little Big Man'' (1970) *'' Chato's Land'' (1972) * ''Jeremiah Johnson'' (1972) * ''Buffalo Bill and the Indians'' (1976) *'' The Missouri Breaks'' (1976) *'' Dances with Wolves'' (1990) *''
Thunderheart ''Thunderheart'' is a 1992 American Neo-Western mystery film directed by Michael Apted from a screenplay by John Fusco. The film is a loosely based fictional portrayal of events relating to the Wounded Knee incident in 1973, when followers of ...
'' (1992) *''
Dead Man ''Dead Man'' is a 1995 American acid Western film written and directed by Jim Jarmusch. It stars Johnny Depp, Gary Farmer, Billy Bob Thornton, Iggy Pop, Crispin Glover, John Hurt, Michael Wincott, Lance Henriksen, Gabriel Byrne, Mili A ...
'' (1995) * ''The Missing'' (2003) *'' The Only Good Indian'' (2009) In the 1970s, Revisionist Westerns like '' Little Big Man'' and ''
Soldier Blue ''Soldier Blue'' is a 1970 American revisionist Western film directed by Ralph Nelson and starring Candice Bergen, Peter Strauss, and Donald Pleasence. Adapted by John Gay from the novel ''Arrow in the Sun'' by T.V. Olsen, it is inspired by ...
'' often portrayed Native Americans as victims and white people as the frontier's aggressive intruders. While the studio comedy ''Little Big Man'' still centers on a white protagonist,
Dustin Hoffman Dustin Lee Hoffman (born August 8, 1937) is an American actor. As one of the key actors in the formation of New Hollywood, Hoffman is known for Dustin Hoffman filmography, his versatile portrayals of antiheroes and emotionally vulnerable charac ...
, the Native Americans are depicted sympathetically while members of the United States Cavalry are depicted as villains. The Cheyenne in the film are living harmoniously and peacefully at the start of the film, and it's the encroachment of the violent white men who are the harmful, disruptive influence on their culture and landscape. The film is also noted for including a
Two-Spirit ''Two-spirit'' (also known as ''two spirit'' or occasionally ''twospirited'', or abbreviated as ''2S'' or ''2E'', especially in Canada) is a umbrella term used by some Indigenous North Americans to describe Native people who fulfill a trad ...
character as well as showing Lt. Colonel
George Armstrong Custer George Armstrong Custer (December 5, 1839 – June 25, 1876) was a United States Army officer and cavalry commander in the American Civil War and the American Indian Wars. Custer graduated from the United States Military Academy at West Point ...
as a lunatic – a fool and a fop – whom the white protagonist betrays for the sake of his adopted Indian family. The 1980s saw the emergence of
independent film An independent film, independent movie, indie film, or indie movie is a feature film or short film that is film production, produced outside the Major film studios, major film studio system in addition to being produced and distributed by independ ...
s with contemporary Native content such as '' Powwow Highway'', a
road movie A road movie is a film genre, genre of film in which the main characters leave home on a road trip, typically altering the perspective from their everyday lives. Road movies often depict travel in the hinterlands, with the films exploring the the ...
and
buddy film The buddy film is a subgenre of adventure and comedy film in which two people go on an adventure, mission, or road trip. The two typically are males with contrasting personalities. The contrast is sometimes accentuated by an ethnic difference b ...
where one protagonist, an angry young activist, namechecks the
American Indian Movement The American Indian Movement (AIM) is an Native Americans in the United States, American Indian grassroots movement which was founded in Minneapolis, Minnesota in July 1968, initially centered in urban areas in order to address systemic issues ...
while the other visits sacred sites to greet the dawn. Both are on their way to free a friend from jail. Ebert, Roger,
Powwow Highway
for the
Chicago Sun-Times The ''Chicago Sun-Times'' is a daily nonprofit newspaper published in Chicago, Illinois, United States. Since 2022, it is the flagship paper of Chicago Public Media, and has long held the second largest circulation among Chicago newspaper ...
. April 28, 1989. Archived at Digital Chicago, Inc.
1990's '' Dances with Wolves'', while hailed by mainstream audiences and providing jobs for many
Lakota Lakota may refer to: *Lakota people, a confederation of seven related Native American tribes *Lakota language Lakota ( ), also referred to as Lakhota, Teton or Teton Sioux, is a Siouan languages, Siouan language spoken by the Lakota people of ...
actors, has also been cited as a return to the
White savior narrative in film The white savior is a trope (cinema), cinematic trope in which a white people, white central character rescues non-white (often less prominent) characters from unfortunate circumstances. This recurs in an array of genres in Cinema of the United Sta ...
. In the film U.S. soldiers capture John Dunbar (
Kevin Costner Kevin Michael Costner (born January 18, 1955) is an American actor and filmmaker. He has received List of awards and nominations received by Kevin Costner, various accolades, including two Academy Awards, three Golden Globe Awards, and a Primeti ...
) and take him as a prisoner. Native Americans race onto the scene and kill all of the U.S. soldiers while none of the Native Americans appear to have been killed. Some of them receive injuries, but they are portrayed as strong and immune to the pain. However, Dunbar then becomes part of the tribe and leads the Sioux against their rivals, the Pawnee, and later helps them escape the same army he once served. The final credits of the film suggest that
Sioux The Sioux or Oceti Sakowin ( ; Dakota/ Lakota: ) are groups of Native American tribes and First Nations people from the Great Plains of North America. The Sioux have two major linguistic divisions: the Dakota and Lakota peoples (translati ...
people are now extinct, which a few criticized. Native Filmmaker
Chris Eyre Chris Eyre (born 1968), an enrolled citizen of the Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes, is a Native American film director and producer. Early life and education Chris Eyre was born in Portland, Oregon, and raised in Klamath Falls by his adoptive ...
wrote and directed the film '' Smoke Signals'' (1998) which has been selected for preservation in the
National Film Registry The National Film Registry (NFR) is the United States National Film Preservation Board's (NFPB) collection of films selected for preservation (library and archival science), preservation, each selected for its cultural, historical, and aestheti ...
for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". It is one of few films featuring Native American characters and directed by a Native filmmaker (along with
Edwin Carewe Edwin Carewe ( Chickasaw Nation, March 3, 1883 – January 22, 1940) was a Native American motion picture director, actor, producer, and screenwriter. Early life and education Jay John Fox was born on March 3, 1883, in Gainesville, Texas. H ...
's early films) that received theatrical distribution. ''Smoke Signals'' was written, directed, and acted in by Native Americans. Like '' Powwow Highway'', it is also a road movie and buddy film that examines friendship, fatherhood, and the roles of tradition versus modernity in Indian Country. In '' The Doe Boy'' (2001) a Cherokee boy is nicknamed Hunter, after accidentally killing a female deer instead of a buck during his first hunting trip. The disappointment of his father and the distance between them is compounded by the physical limitations placed on Hunter to avoid injury. Breaking away from his father and overprotective mother, he meets with a girlfriend and falls in love with her, and drawing on the wisdom of his full-blood grandfather, Hunter gradually discovers love and a true sense of his possibilities. Later on his father was accidentally shot and killed by hunters. Hunter meets with the buck deer and decides not to kill the buck. In '' Buffalo Dreams'' (2005) Josh Townsend has to move again with his mother and father, astrophysics researcher Dr. Nick Townsend, to a New Mexico small town. While working on the copy machine, Josh gets bored and decides to work for the Native American family tribal buffalo reserve, working with Navajo clan elder John Blackhorse's cynical grandson Thomas and his buddy Moon. Kyle's cyclist gang invites him for a bike ride which Josh joins their group, and he takes them to a secret waterfall where they spray-paint graffiti in the sacred site and litter the ground, Josh gets into trouble with John, and he apologizes to John's family and challenges his rival Kyle to a mountain bike race. During the race the buffalos escape and stampede towards town, and Josh and his friends gather up the buffalos to save their small town from getting stampede. '' The New World'' (2005) offers a largely fictionalized retelling of the relationship between John Smith and
Pocahontas Pocahontas (, ; born Amonute, also known as Matoaka and Rebecca Rolfe; 1596 – March 1617) was a Native American woman belonging to the Powhatan people, notable for her association with the colonial settlement at Jamestown, Virginia. S ...
. John Smith arrives to the Americas with the Pilgrims and is immediately captured by a Native American tribe. The film did offer several myths about Pocahontas, changing her into an adult so the film can be made into a love story. In reality, Pocahontas was a child of about ten she met John Smith, and most scholars agree that some of the events in the film never took place.


Native Americans in animation

* ''
Pinocchio Pinocchio ( , ) is a fictional character and the protagonist of the children's novel, ''The Adventures of Pinocchio'' (1883) by Italian writer Carlo Collodi of Florence, Tuscany. Pinocchio was carved by a poor man named Geppetto in a Tuscan vil ...
'' (1940): ''Pinocchio'' is a 1940 animated film produced by
Walt Disney Walter Elias Disney ( ; December 5, 1901December 15, 1966) was an American animator, film producer, voice actor, and entrepreneur. A pioneer of the Golden age of American animation, American animation industry, he introduced several develop ...
. During the Pleasure Island scene, characters gather in Tobacco Road, and there are six racist caricatures of Native American Chiefs wearing headdresses, smoking peace pipes, and throwing out free cigars to the crowd. * ''
Peter Pan Peter Pan is a fictional character created by Scottish novelist and playwright J. M. Barrie. A free-spirited and mischievous young boy who can fly and never grows up, Peter Pan spends his never-ending childhood having adventures on the mythical ...
'' (1953): ''Peter Pan'' is a 1953 animated film produced by Walt Disney. A major scene in ''Peter Pan'' involves the Darling children,
Wendy Wendy is a given name generally given to girls in English-speaking countries. In Britain during the English Civil War in the mid-1600s, a male Captain Wendy Oxford was identified by the Leveller John Lilburne as a spy reporting on his activit ...
, John and Michael Darling, the Lost Boys and
Peter Pan Peter Pan is a fictional character created by Scottish novelist and playwright J. M. Barrie. A free-spirited and mischievous young boy who can fly and never grows up, Peter Pan spends his never-ending childhood having adventures on the mythical ...
celebrating at the Indian camp after Peter rescues Tiger Lily, the daughter of the chief, from
Captain Hook Captain James Hook is the main antagonist of J. M. Barrie's 1904 play ''Peter and Wendy, Peter Pan; or, the Boy Who Wouldn't Grow Up'' and its various adaptations, in which he is Peter Pan's archenemy. The character is a pirate captain of the br ...
and
Mr. Smee Mr. Smee is a fictional character who serves as Captain Hook's boatswain in J. M. Barrie's 1904 play ''Peter Pan, or the Boy Who Wouldn't Grow Up'' and 1911 novel ''Peter and Wendy''. History Mr. Smee seems an oddly genial man for a pirate; ...
. This scene includes the song, " What Made the Red Man Red?", that features racist caricatures of Native Americans. * '' The Good, the Bad, and Huckleberry Hound'' (1988): Is an animated parody television film directed by
Charles August Nichols Charles August "Nick" Nichols (September 15, 1910August 23, 1992) was a Canadian-born animator and film director, who worked in animation for over 50 years at Walt Disney Animation Studios and Hanna-Barbera. At Disney, he worked on various shor ...
and Ray Patterson with executive producers
William Hanna William Denby Hanna (July 14, 1910 – March 22, 2001) was an American animator, voice actor, and musician who is best known for co-creating ''Tom and Jerry'' and providing the vocal effects for the series' title characters. Alongside Joseph B ...
and
Joseph Barbera Joseph Roland Barbera ( ; ; March 24, 1911 – December 18, 2006) was an American animator and cartoonist, best known as the co-founder of the animation studio Hanna-Barbera. Born to Italian Americans, Italian immigrants in New York City, Bar ...
. The subplot of this film involves
Huckleberry Hound Huckleberry "Huck" Hound is a fictional cartoon character, a blue dog who speaks with a North Carolina accent. He first appeared in the series ''The Huckleberry Hound Show''. The cartoon was one of six TV shows to win an Emmy Award in 1960 as a ...
suffering an amnesia after the rocket crashes down towards the village of Native American dogs where he is found by a girl hound, Desert Flower. There, Huck must past the test to earn the blessing of Desert Flower's father the chief who will allow him to marry her. * '' An American Tail: Fievel Goes West'' (1991): Is an animated film by
Phil Nibbelink Phil Nibbelink (born June 3, 1955) is an American animator and film director as well as comic book writer and illustrator known for his work on films as the Academy Award-winning ''Who Framed Roger Rabbit'' and the 1991 cult animated sequel ''An ...
and
Simon Wells Simon Finlay Wells (born 1961) is an English film director of animation and live-action films. He is the great-grandson of author H. G. Wells, and is best known for directing '' An American Tail: Fievel Goes West'' (1991), '' Balto'' (1995), an ...
with producer
Steven Spielberg Steven Allan Spielberg ( ; born December 18, 1946) is an American filmmaker. A major figure of the New Hollywood era and pioneer of the modern blockbuster, Spielberg is widely regarded as one of the greatest film directors of all time and is ...
for
Amblin Entertainment Amblin' Entertainment, Inc., formerly named Amblin Productions, is an American film production company founded by director and producer Steven Spielberg, and film producers Kathleen Kennedy and Frank Marshall in 1980. Its headquarters are lo ...
by
Universal Pictures Universal City Studios LLC, doing business as Universal Pictures (also known as Universal Studios or simply Universal), is an American filmmaking, film production and film distribution, distribution company headquartered at the 10 Universal Ci ...
. While Tiger is lost in the desert, he is ambushed by a Native American mice tribe who captures Tiger and mistakes him for a god. Later on, Fievel gets caught by a hawk and the Native American mice shoot it down, and Fievel falls and reunites with Tiger. * ''
Pocahontas Pocahontas (, ; born Amonute, also known as Matoaka and Rebecca Rolfe; 1596 – March 1617) was a Native American woman belonging to the Powhatan people, notable for her association with the colonial settlement at Jamestown, Virginia. S ...
'' (1995): ''Pocahontas'' is a 1995 Disney animated film. In this film, John Smith, while on the voyage to Jamestown encounters
Pocahontas Pocahontas (, ; born Amonute, also known as Matoaka and Rebecca Rolfe; 1596 – March 1617) was a Native American woman belonging to the Powhatan people, notable for her association with the colonial settlement at Jamestown, Virginia. S ...
and the
Powhatan Powhatan people () are Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands who belong to member tribes of the Powhatan Confederacy, or Tsenacommacah. They are Algonquian peoples whose historic territories were in eastern Virginia. Their Powh ...
tribe. Conflict between the European settlers and Native Americans ensues, as tension ramps up between the two groups over land. Before a battle between the two groups begins, Pocahontas saves the life of John Smith and prevents the war. Though presented as historical, the story is highly fictionalized with Pocahontas and John Smith ending up falling in love with each other. Critics of Disney's ''Pocahontas'' say that it presents the idea that the only good native is one that helps white people. It is argued that Pocahontas is portrayed as a princess for protecting John Smith while the other native people are presented as savages. * '' An American Tail: The Treasure of Manhattan Island'' (1998): Is an animated film directed by Larry Latham for
Universal Studios Home Video Universal Pictures Home Entertainment LLC (UPHE) is the home video distribution division of Universal Pictures, an American film studio owned by NBCUniversal, the entertainment unit of Comcast. UPHE is the home video distributor for all of the ...
. Fievel and Tony discover that an ancient treasure lies underneath
Manhattan Manhattan ( ) is the most densely populated and geographically smallest of the Boroughs of New York City, five boroughs of New York City. Coextensive with New York County, Manhattan is the County statistics of the United States#Smallest, larg ...
in an abandoned subway where they meet a Native American mice tribe called
Lenape The Lenape (, , ; ), also called the Lenni Lenape and Delaware people, are an Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands, Indigenous people of the Northeastern Woodlands, who live in the United States and Canada. The Lenape's historica ...
, during which they meet a girl mouse Cholena. The sachem mouse, Chief Wulisso, decides to send his daughter Cholena to the surface to see if they have "changed their ways". * ''
Brother Bear ''Brother Bear'' is a 2003 American animated musical fantasy comedy-drama film produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation and released by Walt Disney Pictures. It was directed by Aaron Blaise and Robert Walker and produced by Chuck Williams, f ...
'' (2003): ''Brother Bear'' is a 2003 animated film produced by Disney that follows the story of an
Inuk Inuit (singular: Inuk) are a group of culturally and historically similar Indigenous peoples of the Americas, Indigenous peoples traditionally inhabiting the Arctic and Subarctic regions of North America and Russia, including Greenland, Labr ...
young man named Kenai as he pursues the bear that killed his older brother, Sitka. However, his vengeance against the bear angers the Spirits. As punishment, the Spirits transform Kenai into a bear. In order to be human again, Kenai must travel to a mountain where the Northern lights touch the earth. * Animated fantasy series '' Avatar: The Last Airbender'' (2005–2008): The Northern and Southern Water Tribes have elements based on various North American indigenous cultures. * The ''
Camp Lazlo ''Camp Lazlo'' is an American animated television series created by Joe Murray for Cartoon Network. The series follows Lazlo, an anthropomorphic spider monkey who goes to a camp called "Camp Kidney", a Boy Scout–like summer camp in the Pim ...
'' episode "Lumpus vs. the Volcano" has Lazlo, Raj, Clam and Slinkman dress up as Native Americans to escape from the volcano itself, which, as a result, turns into a chicken pot pie, Lumpus' favorite food. Deputy Doodle Doo is the mascot for his own chicken pot pie company. * The '' My Little Pony: Friendship is Magic'' episode " Over a Barrel" (S1E21) has buffalo that take visual cues from Native Americans, as well as a character named Little Strongheart, a young female brown buffalo. * ''
Molly of Denali ''Molly of Denali'' (stylized in all caps) is an animated children's television series produced by WGBH-TV, WGBH Kids and animated by Atomic Cartoons, created by Dorothea Gillim and Kathy Waugh for PBS Kids and CBC Kids.
'' (2019–present): ''Molly of Denali'' is an animated series following the adventures of Molly, a 10-year-old
Alaska Native Alaska Natives (also known as Native Alaskans, Alaskan Indians, or Indigenous Alaskans) are the Indigenous peoples of the Americas, Indigenous peoples of Alaska that encompass a diverse arena of cultural and linguistic groups, including the I ...
girl, her friends Tooey and Trini, and her dog Suki. ''Molly of Denali'' is the first nationally distributed children's to feature an Alaska Native as the main character and protagonist.


Protest

In 1973, American actor
Marlon Brando Marlon Brando Jr. (April 3, 1924 – July 1, 2004) was an American actor. Widely regarded as one of the greatest cinema actors of the 20th century,''Movies in American History: An Encyclopedia''
declined an
Academy Award The Academy Awards, commonly known as the Oscars, are awards for artistic and technical merit in film. They are presented annually by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS) in the United States in recognition of excellence ...
in protest for the representation of Native Americans in
Hollywood Hollywood usually refers to: * Hollywood, Los Angeles, a neighborhood in California * Hollywood, a metonym for the cinema of the United States Hollywood may also refer to: Places United States * Hollywood District (disambiguation) * Hollywood ...
cinema, citing killing of helpless unarmed Indigenous peoples and the theft of their territory.


Whitewashing of Native American characters

Whitewashing in film Whitewashing is a casting practice in the film industry in which white people, white actors are cast in non-white roles. As defined by Merriam-Webster, to whitewash is "to alter...in a way that favors, features, or caters to white people: such as ...
refers to the historic phenomenon stemming from the early 1900s where white actors have been cast for roles not meant for them. Instead of hiring someone that fits the intended race/ethnicity of the character, a white person is traditionally given that role. This is not unique to one racial or minority group; from Black, to Asian, and to Native American, many marginalized groups in America have felt the effects of whitewashing in the film industry. Whitewashing is two-pronged in effect, for not only does it impede Native American representation in film, but it also forces them into stereotypical roles. The tropes of the savage Native American or the Native American at the mercy of white people have long been recycled for years. This allows Hollywood, a predominantly white industry from top to bottom, to continue to gatekeep access to coveted film roles. In 2017, roughly 70% of the characters in the top Hollywood releases for that year were white. That year, roughly 60% of the US population was white, showing a disproportionate representation of white people in Hollywood. This also reinforces many of the stereotypes many people possess regarding Native Americans, because there hasn't been a significant culture change as yet regarding how Native Americans are portrayed in mainstream American media. Furthermore, white actors have never faced a shortage of roles available to them in Hollywood, while Native Americans and other marginalized groups continue to experience this.


Examples

* In '' The Legend of Walks Far Woman'' (1982)'','' actress Raquel Welch played a Sioux warrior who killed her husband and was banished from her tribe. Welch played the role despite being white. * In '' Outrageous Fortune'' (1987), white comedian George Carlin appropriates Native culture in his role as Frank Madras, a scout. * '' X-Men Origins: Wolverine'' (2009) Lynn Collins plays the (Blackfoot/Niitsítapi) character Silver Fox. * In ''The Last Airbender'' (2010),
M. Night Shyamalan Manoj Nelliyattu M. Night Shyamalan ( ; born August 6, 1970) is an American filmmaker. His films often employ supernatural plots and twist endings. The cumulative gross of his films exceeds $3.3 billion globally. Shyamalan has received vario ...
adaptation of the animated series '' Avatar: The Last Airbender'' several Asian and Native American characters were played by white actors. * While
Johnny Depp John Christopher Depp II (born June 9, 1963) is an American actor and musician. He is the recipient of List of awards and nominations received by Johnny Depp, multiple accolades, including a Golden Globe Award as well as nominations for ...
's portrayal of
Tonto Tonto is a fictional character; he is the Native Americans in the United States, Native American (either Tonto Apache, Comanche, or Potawatomi) Friendship, companion of the Lone Ranger, a popular American Western (genre), Western character crea ...
in
Disney The Walt Disney Company, commonly referred to as simply Disney, is an American multinational mass media and entertainment industry, entertainment conglomerate (company), conglomerate headquartered at the Walt Disney Studios (Burbank), Walt Di ...
's ''
The Lone Ranger The Lone Ranger is a fictional masked former Texas Ranger who fought outlaws in the American Old West with his Native American friend Tonto. The character has been called an enduring icon of American culture. He first appeared in 1933 in a ...
'' (2013) has been accepted in Comanche groups, critics argue that Depp engaged in " redface" and casting him over Native actors was a racist decision. * ''Pan'' (2015) cast white actor
Rooney Mara Rooney Mara Phoenix ( ; born Patricia Rooney Mara; April 17, 1985) is an American actress. Her accolades include nominations for two Academy Awards, two Golden Globe Awards and a British Academy Film Award. Born into the Rooney and Mara fam ...
as Tiger Lily, the Native American princess from
Peter Pan Peter Pan is a fictional character created by Scottish novelist and playwright J. M. Barrie. A free-spirited and mischievous young boy who can fly and never grows up, Peter Pan spends his never-ending childhood having adventures on the mythical ...
.


Documentaries

* '' Broken Rainbow'' (1985): ''Broken Rainbow'' details the forced relocation of the members of the Navajo tribe from Black Mesa, Arizona after the 1974 Navajo-Hopi Land Settlement Act. Many Navajo families were separated during this period of displacement in the U.S. government's attempt to ameliorate perceived issues between the Hopi and Navajo tribes. This documentary underscores several issues that indigenous communities across the United States face today; the growing desire to acquire indigenous lands for capitalist ventures. At stake are mining rights, land boundaries, and extraction for uranium, gas, oil, and other raw materials. Directed by Victoria Mudd, it won the Academy Award for Best Documentary in 1986. The cast includes the voice narrations of Martin Sheen, Buffy Sainte-Marie, Burgess Meredith, and others. * '' Imagining Indians'' (1992): ''Imagining Indians'' is a 1992 documentary film produced and directed by Native American filmmaker, Victor Masayesva Jr. (
Hopi The Hopi are Native Americans who primarily live in northeastern Arizona. The majority are enrolled in the Hopi Tribe of Arizona and live on the Hopi Reservation in northeastern Arizona; however, some Hopi people are enrolled in the Colorado ...
). The documentary attempts to reveal the misrepresentation of Indigenous culture and tradition in Classical Hollywood films through interviews with different Native actors and extras from various tribes throughout the United States. It stars Shirley Atene, Karmen Clifford, Marvin Clifford, and others. The cast is entirely Native American, pulling indigenous people from the Amazon, Montana, Arizona, and other places. It is considered one of Masayesva's more provocative pieces of cinema, as it delves into the complexities surrounding white perception of Native American culture and identity. The film also touches upon the invasive nature of Hollywood in terms of filming on reservations. Director Masayesva said that The Dark Wind (1991) intruded on his village to film when he was younger, and he felt the duty to share stories like these with the outside world. * '' The Canary Effect'' (2006): ''The Canary Effect'' is an examination of the effects of the United States and its policies on Indigenous communities. Some of these policies include forced schooling of children outside Native American communities, mass killings, forced female sterilisation, and more. It was directed by Robin Davey, a British musician, and Yellow Thunder Woman, who hails from the Yankton Sioux and Rosebud Sioux reservations of South Dakota. Both of them are members of the LA pop group The Bastard Fairies. The film first premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival in New York, and in 2006 it won the Stanley Kubrick Award at the Traverse City Film Festival in Michigan. The cast includes Charles Abourezk and Ward Churchill, author, former professor, and one of the leaders of the American Indian Movement of Colorado since the 1980s. * ''
Reel Injun ''Reel Injun'' is a 2009 Canadian documentary film directed by Cree filmmakers Neil Diamond, Catherine Bainbridge, and Jeremiah Hayes that explores the portrayal of Native Americans in film. ''Reel Injun'' is illustrated with excerpts from cla ...
'' (2009): ''Reel Injun'' is a 2009 Canadian documentary film directed by
Cree The Cree, or nehinaw (, ), are a Indigenous peoples of the Americas, North American Indigenous people, numbering more than 350,000 in Canada, where they form one of the country's largest First Nations in Canada, First Nations. They live prim ...
filmmaker Neil Diamond, Catherine Bainbridge, and Jeremiah Hayes that explores the portrayal of Native Americans in film. Reel Injun is illustrated with excerpts from classic and contemporary portrayals of Native people in Hollywood films and interviews with filmmakers, actors and film historians, while director Diamond travels across the United States to visit iconic locations in motion picture as well as American Indian history. The documentary chronicles the journey of Native Americans in film over roughly a century, with particular attention on the transition from the silent era of Hollywood to today. It utilises clips from different eras of film, and Diamond meets with famous filmmakers such as Clint Eastwood to learn more about the transformation of the Native American image onscreen. Other cameos include
Robbie Robertson Jaime Royal Robertson (July 5, 1943 – August 9, 2023) was a Canadian musician of Indigenous and Jewish ancestry. He was the lead guitarist for Bob Dylan's backing band in the mid-late 1960s and early-mid 1970s. Robertson was also the ...
(soundtrack composer), Graham Greene (Native American actor),
Wes Studi Wesley Studi (; born December 17, 1947) is a Native American (Cherokee Nation) actor and film producer. He has garnered critical acclaim and awards throughout his career, particularly for his portrayal of Native Americans in film. In 2019, he ...
(Native American actor), Jim Jarmusch (filmmaker), Chris Eyre (filmmaker), Jesse Wente (Native Canadian critic and program director), and Angela Aleiss (scholar and author). Diamond heads to famous locations such as Monument Valley, where many Westerns were filmed, and South Dakota's Black Hills, the home of several notable Native Americans. *'' Inventing the Indian'' (2012): ''Inventing the Indian'' is a 2012 BBC documentary, initially broadcast on October 28, 2012, that explores the stereotypical view of Native Americans in the United States in cinema and literature. Directed by Chris Cottam, the documentary is presented by
Rich Hall Richard Travis Hall (born June 10, 1954) is an American comedian, writer, director, actor, and musician, first coming to prominence as a sketch comedian in the 1980s. He wrote and performed for a range of American networks, in series such as ...
, an American comedian. The cast also includes Dave Bald Eagle, Ailema Benally, and Milton Bianis. Hall attempts to dismantle some of the pervasive stereotypes that beleaguer the Native American community to this day by heading to indigenous areas in Arizona, South Dakota, and other places as well. He examines the way Native Americans have been portrayed on screen in films such as
Soldier Blue ''Soldier Blue'' is a 1970 American revisionist Western film directed by Ralph Nelson and starring Candice Bergen, Peter Strauss, and Donald Pleasence. Adapted by John Gay from the novel ''Arrow in the Sun'' by T.V. Olsen, it is inspired by ...
and A Man Called Horse, while also looking at literary representations of indigenous peoples, in books like
The Last of the Mohicans ''The Last of the Mohicans: A Narrative of 1757'' is an 1826 historical romance novel by James Fenimore Cooper. It is the second book of the '' Leatherstocking Tales'' pentalogy and the best known to contemporary audiences. '' The Pathfinder'', ...
and
Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee ''Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: An Indian History of the American West'' is a 1970 non-fiction book by American writer Dee Brown. It explores the history of American expansionism in the American West in the late nineteenth century and its de ...
.


Prominent Native American actors

File:Dark Cloud - Elijah Tahamont.jpg, Dark Cloud (1855–1918), Native American film actor File:Red Wing 1914.jpg, Lillian Margaret St. Cyr (1873–1964), Native American film actress File:CareweEdwin.jpg,
Edwin Carewe Edwin Carewe ( Chickasaw Nation, March 3, 1883 – January 22, 1940) was a Native American motion picture director, actor, producer, and screenwriter. Early life and education Jay John Fox was born on March 3, 1883, in Gainesville, Texas. H ...
(1883–1940), the most prolific Native American director of feature films in Hollywood history File:Chief Luther Standing Bear.png,
Luther Standing Bear Luther Standing Bear (Óta Kté or "Plenty Kill," also known as Matȟó Nážiŋ or "Standing Bear", 1868 – 1939) was a Sicangu and Oglala Lakota author, educator, philosopher, and actor. He worked to preserve Lakota culture and sovereignty, an ...
(1868–1939), Native American film actor
Dark Cloud, also known as Elijah Tahamont, was an Algonquin chief born in St. Francis Indian Village, Quebec, Canada who lived from 1861 to 1918. He starred in films such as '' What Am I Bid?'' (1919), ''The Woman Untamed'' (1920), ''
The Birth of a Nation ''The Birth of a Nation'' is a 1915 American Silent film, silent Epic film, epic Drama (film and television), drama film directed by D. W. Griffith and starring Lillian Gish. The screenplay is adapted from Thomas Dixon Jr.'s 1905 novel and ...
'' (1915), and ''The Dishonoured Metal'' (1914). Red Wing was born in 1884 to a Winnebago mother and French Canadian/ Sauk father on the Winnebago Reservation in Nebraska. Early in her career, she starred in many small film roles. She was best known for starring in one of Hollywood's first feature Westerns, '' The Squaw Man'' (1914). She was married to
James Young Deer James Young Deer (April 1, 1876 – April 6, 1946), also known as J. Younger Johnson or Jim Young Deer, was born James Young Johnson in Washington, D.C. Although he was identified in the early Hollywood trade paper ''Moving Picture World'' as of t ...
, another indigenous actor and director.
Edwin Carewe Edwin Carewe ( Chickasaw Nation, March 3, 1883 – January 22, 1940) was a Native American motion picture director, actor, producer, and screenwriter. Early life and education Jay John Fox was born on March 3, 1883, in Gainesville, Texas. H ...
, also known as Jay John Fox, was born in
Gainesville, Texas Gainesville is a city in and the county seat of Cooke County, Texas, United States. Its population was 17,394 at the 2020 United States Census, 2020 census. It is part of the Texoma region and is an important Agri-business center. History Found ...
, in 1883 to a white father and
Chickasaw The Chickasaw ( ) are an Indigenous people of the Southeastern Woodlands, United States. Their traditional territory was in northern Mississippi, northwestern and northern Alabama, western Tennessee and southwestern Kentucky. Their language is ...
mother. An actor early in his career, Carewe started directing Hollywood films in 1914 during the silent era. Some of his films include ''Ramona'' (1928), ''Evangeline'' (1929), ''Resurrection'' (1927), and ''Joanna'' (1925).
Luther Standing Bear Luther Standing Bear (Óta Kté or "Plenty Kill," also known as Matȟó Nážiŋ or "Standing Bear", 1868 – 1939) was a Sicangu and Oglala Lakota author, educator, philosopher, and actor. He worked to preserve Lakota culture and sovereignty, an ...
, also known as Ota K'Te (Plenty Kill), was born on the
Pine Ridge Reservation The Pine Ridge Indian Reservation (), also called Pine Ridge Agency, is an Oglala Lakota Indian reservation located in the U.S. state of South Dakota, with a small portion extending into Nebraska. Originally included within the territory of the ...
in South Dakota and lived from 1868 to 1939. He is an
Oglala Lakota The Oglala (pronounced , meaning 'to scatter one's own' in Lakota language, Lakota) are one of the seven subtribes of the Lakota people who, along with the Dakota people, Dakota, make up the Sioux, Očhéthi Šakówiŋ (Seven Council Fires). A ...
writer and actor who started acting in 1912. Some of his filmography includes ''
White Oak ''Quercus'' subgenus ''Quercus'' is one of the two subgenera into which the genus ''Quercus'' was divided in a 2017 classification (the other being subgenus ''Cerris''). It contains about 190 species divided among five sections. It may be calle ...
'' (1921), '' Cyclone of the Saddle'' (1935), and ''
Union Pacific The Union Pacific Railroad is a Class I freight-hauling railroad that operates 8,300 locomotives over routes in 23 U.S. states west of Chicago and New Orleans. Union Pacific is the second largest railroad in the United States after BNSF, ...
'' (1939).
James Young Deer James Young Deer (April 1, 1876 – April 6, 1946), also known as J. Younger Johnson or Jim Young Deer, was born James Young Johnson in Washington, D.C. Although he was identified in the early Hollywood trade paper ''Moving Picture World'' as of t ...
was born James Young Johnson in Washington D.C. in 1876. He hails from the
Nanticoke people The Nanticoke people are a Native American Algonquian-speaking people, whose traditional homelands are in Chesapeake Bay area, including Delaware. Today they continue to live in the Northeastern United States, especially Delaware, and in Okl ...
of Delaware, and worked both as a director and actor. Some of his films include ''The Stranger'' (1920), '' The Great Secret'' (1917), and ''Lieutenant Daring RN and the Water Rats'' (1924). From 1911 to 1914, James Young Deer was Head of Production/general manager for the
Pathé Frères Pathé SAS (; styled as PATHÉ!) is a French major film production and distribution company, owning a number of cinema chains through its subsidiary Pathé Cinémas and television networks across Europe. It is the name of a network of Fren ...
West Coast Studio located in Edendale, California. He was married to Native American actress Red Wing and died in 1946.
Wes Studi Wesley Studi (; born December 17, 1947) is a Native American (Cherokee Nation) actor and film producer. He has garnered critical acclaim and awards throughout his career, particularly for his portrayal of Native Americans in film. In 2019, he ...
, born in 1947 in Oklahoma, is a
Cherokee The Cherokee (; , or ) people are one of the Indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands of the United States. Prior to the 18th century, they were concentrated in their homelands, in towns along river valleys of what is now southwestern ...
actor and professional horse trainer known for starring in over 80 films. Some of his work includes '' Dances with Wolves'' (1990), ''
The Last of the Mohicans ''The Last of the Mohicans: A Narrative of 1757'' is an 1826 historical romance novel by James Fenimore Cooper. It is the second book of the '' Leatherstocking Tales'' pentalogy and the best known to contemporary audiences. '' The Pathfinder'', ...
'' (1992), and ''
Avatar Avatar (, ; ) is a concept within Hinduism that in Sanskrit literally means . It signifies the material appearance or incarnation of a powerful deity, or spirit on Earth. The relative verb to "alight, to make one's appearance" is sometimes u ...
'' (2009). He is credited with bringing versatile and masterful performances into Hollywood which have helped to dismantle some of the stereotypes surrounding Native Americans within the industry. In 2019, Studi received the Governors Award, an honorary award that commemorates the lifetime performance of an actor each year. Studi is just the second actor to receive an award for performances in film, following Ben Johnson in 1972. Born in South Dakota,
Russell Means Russell Charles Means (; November 10, 1939 – October 22, 2012) was an Oglala Lakota activist for the rights of Native Americans, libertarian political activist, actor, musician and writer. He became a prominent member of the American Indi ...
was an Oglala Lakota Dakota Native American who lived from 1939 to 2012. Means was the first director of the
American Indian Movement The American Indian Movement (AIM) is an Native Americans in the United States, American Indian grassroots movement which was founded in Minneapolis, Minnesota in July 1968, initially centered in urban areas in order to address systemic issues ...
, which was originally created to fight poverty and
police brutality Police brutality is the excessive and unwarranted use of force by law enforcement against an individual or Public order policing, a group. It is an extreme form of police misconduct and is a civil rights violation. Police brutality includes, b ...
amongst American indigenous communities. He fought for the rights of indigenous people worldwide, and is known for giving a televised speech in 2000 where he said he prefers the label 'Indian' to 'Native American' because everyone born in the United States should be considered a Native American. He also ran an unsuccessful presidential campaign in 1987 as a member of the Libertarian party. He has starred in films such as ''
The Last of the Mohicans ''The Last of the Mohicans: A Narrative of 1757'' is an 1826 historical romance novel by James Fenimore Cooper. It is the second book of the '' Leatherstocking Tales'' pentalogy and the best known to contemporary audiences. '' The Pathfinder'', ...
'' (1992), ''
Natural Born Killers ''Natural Born Killers'' is a 1994 American romantic crime action film directed by Oliver Stone and starring Woody Harrelson, Juliette Lewis, Robert Downey Jr., Tommy Lee Jones, and Tom Sizemore. The film tells the story of two victims ...
'' (1994) and ''
Pocahontas Pocahontas (, ; born Amonute, also known as Matoaka and Rebecca Rolfe; 1596 – March 1617) was a Native American woman belonging to the Powhatan people, notable for her association with the colonial settlement at Jamestown, Virginia. S ...
'' (1995).
Will Sampson William Sampson Jr. (September 27, 1933 – June 3, 1987) was a Muscogee Nation painter, actor, and rodeo performer. He is best known for his performance as the apparently mute Chief Bromden in the 1975 film '' One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest ...
, from Oklahoma, was a member of the
Creek Nation The Muscogee Nation, or Muscogee (Creek) Nation, is a List of federally recognized tribes, federally recognized Native American tribe based in the U.S. state of Oklahoma. The nation descends from the historic Muscogee Confederacy, a large grou ...
who lived from 1933 to 1987. He received his big acting break with the role "Chief" Bromden in ''
One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest may refer to: * ''One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest'' (novel), a 1962 novel by Ken Kesey * ''One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest'' (play), a 1963 stage adaptation of the novel starring Kirk Douglas * ''One Flew Over the ...
'' (1975), one of only three films to win the Big Five Academy Awards. Sampson was also known for starring in films such as ''
The Outlaw Josey Wales ''The Outlaw Josey Wales'' is a 1976 American revisionist Western film set during and after the American Civil War. It was directed by and starred Clint Eastwood (as Josey Wales), with Chief Dan George, Sondra Locke, Bill McKinney, and Joh ...
'' (1976), ''
Orca The orca (''Orcinus orca''), or killer whale, is a toothed whale and the largest member of the oceanic dolphin family. The only extant species in the genus '' Orcinus'', it is recognizable by its black-and-white-patterned body. A cosmopol ...
'' (1977), and '' The White Buffalo'' (1977). After dying in 1987, he was buried on the reservation that he grew up on. Floyd Westerman, who also went by 'Red Crow', was a Dakota Sioux actor, activist and musician born in 1936 on the
Lake Traverse Indian Reservation The Lake Traverse Indian Reservation is the homeland of the federally recognized Sisseton Wahpeton Oyate, a branch of the Santee Dakota group of Native Americans in the United States, Native Americans. Most of the reservation covers parts of five ...
in Roberts County, South Dakota. He starred in ''Dances with Wolves'' (1990), ''
Dharma & Greg ''Dharma & Greg'' is an American television sitcom that originally aired on ABC for five seasons from September 24, 1997, to April 30, 2002, with a total of 119 episodes. The show starred Jenna Elfman and Thomas Gibson as Dharma and Greg Mont ...
'' (1997), and '' Hidalgo'' (2004). Outside of film, Westerman has used his musical talents to bring greater awareness to issues facing indigenous people in the United States. He collaborated with artists such as Sting,
Willie Nelson Willie Hugh Nelson (born April 29, 1933) is an American singer, guitarist, songwriter, actor and activist. He was one of the main figures of the outlaw country subgenre that developed in the late 1960s as a reaction to the conservative restr ...
, and
Don Henley Donald Hugh Henley (born July 22, 1947) is an American musician who is a founding member of the rock band the Eagles, for whom he is the drummer and co-lead vocalist, as well as its sole continuous member. Henley sang the lead vocals on Eagles ...
to achieve such goals. He was also an ambassador for the
International Indian Treaty Council The International Indian Treaty Council (IITC) is an organization of Indigenous Peoples from North, Central, South America, the Caribbean and the Pacific working for the Sovereignty and Self-Determination of Indigenous Peoples and the recognition ...
, a multinational organization striving for the self-determination and autonomy of indigenous peoples across the world. He died in 2007.


Visual sovereignty

Visual sovereignty is a way of looking at indigenous sovereignty outside of legal parameters defined by Seneca scholar Michelle H. Raheja as "a way of reimagining Native-centered articulations of self-representation and autonomy that engage the powerful ideologies of mass media," to take back the right to tell their own stories. Scholar Julia Boyd writes "White males have long dominated the film industry (. . .) Yet, Indian filmmakers have been on the rise in recent decades." As an example of visual sovereignty, Igloolik Isuma Productions was the first
Inuit Inuit (singular: Inuk) are a group of culturally and historically similar Indigenous peoples traditionally inhabiting the Arctic and Subarctic regions of North America and Russia, including Greenland, Labrador, Quebec, Nunavut, the Northwe ...
owned production company known for producing films such as '' Atanarjuat: The Fast Runner''. Isuma was formed in 1981 and created Inuit films in their native language Inuktitut. Isuma Productions also runs IsumaTV that hosts indigenous filmmakers. The Isuma Website states it hosts "over 7000 films and videos in 84 languages." Isuma Productions continues to be a leader when it comes to visual sovereignty. '' Smoke Signals'' (1998): Native Filmmaker Chris Eyre wrote and directed the film '' Smoke Signals'', which has been selected for preservation in the
National Film Registry The National Film Registry (NFR) is the United States National Film Preservation Board's (NFPB) collection of films selected for preservation (library and archival science), preservation, each selected for its cultural, historical, and aestheti ...
for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". It is one of few films featuring Native American characters and directed by a Native filmmaker (along with
Edwin Carewe Edwin Carewe ( Chickasaw Nation, March 3, 1883 – January 22, 1940) was a Native American motion picture director, actor, producer, and screenwriter. Early life and education Jay John Fox was born on March 3, 1883, in Gainesville, Texas. H ...
's early films) that received theatrical distribution. ''Smoke Signals'' was written, directed, and acted in by Native Americans. Like Powwow Highway, it is also a road movie and buddy film that examines friendship, fatherhood, and the roles of tradition versus modernity in Indian Country. Written and directed by Mi'kmaq filmmaker Jeff Barnaby, '' Rhymes for Young Ghouls'' (2013) tells the story of Aila, played by Kawennáhere Devery Jacobs, as she goes up against Popper, an Indian agent and head of the nearby residential school. The reservation has been deeply affected by the residential school, partaking in the use of drugs and alcohol in order to forget the trauma inflicted by the school system. Rhymes for young ghouls is a revenge story against the Canadian residential school system and offers a path towards decolonization through educating people on the residential school system and opening up dialogue as a means to decolonization. Written and acted in by Natives, Rhymes for young ghouls exemplifies visual sovereignty. Another Jeff Barnaby film, ''
Blood Quantum Blood quantum laws or Indian blood laws are laws that define Native Americans in the United States status by fractions of Native American ancestry. These laws were enacted by the Federal government of the United States, federal government and S ...
'' (2019) is about a zombie apocalypse where only Mi'gmaq people are immune. Barnaby explores life in a post-colonial society through the lens of a zombie apocalypse where they must resist and fight against their oppressors and avoid extinction. Barnaby once again used a native cast to tell a native story showcasing visual sovereignty. Written and directed by the Cree-Métis filmmaker Danis Goulet, '' Night Raiders'' (2021) takes place in a dystopian post-war North America where children are owned by the state. Night Raiders is in scathing commentary on Native residential schools and the kidnapping of children by the state to be placed in these schools. The film stars Elle-Máijá Tailfeathers, a Blackfoot and Sámi actress, as Niska and Brooklyn Letexier-Hart as Waseese.Powster. "Night Raiders." Night Raiders , Official Website , 08 October 2021, 8 Oct. 2021, https://www.nightraidersmovie.com/synopsis/ . Written and directed by Chloé Leriche, ''Before the Streets'' () is a 2016 Canadian
drama film In film and television, drama is a category or genre of narrative fiction (or semi-fiction) intended to be more serious than humorous in tone. The drama of this kind is usually qualified with additional terms that specify its particular ...
Set among the
Atikamekw The Atikamekw are an Indigenous people in Canada. Their historic territory, ('Our Land'), is in the upper Saint-Maurice River valley of Quebec (about north of Montreal). One of the main communities is Manawan, about northeast of Montreal. ...
people of northern
Quebec Quebec is Canada's List of Canadian provinces and territories by area, largest province by area. Located in Central Canada, the province shares borders with the provinces of Ontario to the west, Newfoundland and Labrador to the northeast, ...
, the film stars Rykko Bellemare as Shawnouk, a man undertaking the process of
restorative justice Restorative justice is a community-based approach to justice that aims to repair the harm done to victims, offenders and communities. In doing so, restorative justice practitioners work to ensure that offenders take responsibility for their ac ...
after accidentally killing someone in the process of committing a crime. Also by Her, And the tellings of Elders from Manawan, ''Atikamekw Suns'' () is a 2023 Canadian drama film, written, produced, and directed by Chloé Leriche. The film centers on the true story of five youths from the
Atikamekw The Atikamekw are an Indigenous people in Canada. Their historic territory, ('Our Land'), is in the upper Saint-Maurice River valley of Quebec (about north of Montreal). One of the main communities is Manawan, about northeast of Montreal. ...
First Nation community of Manawan who were found dead in a truck in the nearby river in 1977, with police investigation remaining inconclusive to this day about whether the truck driving into the river was a simple accident or a racially-motivated attack."À la recherche de talents autochtones pour un film"
Ici Radio-Canada Première Ici Radio-Canada Première (formerly Première Chaîne) is a Canadian French-language radio network, the news and information service of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (known as Société Radio-Canada in French), the public broadcaster of ...
, November 19, 2020.
Directed and produced by
Riley Keough Danielle Riley Keough ( ; born May 29, 1989) is an American actress. Born into the Presley family, she is the oldest daughter of Lisa Marie Presley and the eldest grandchild of Elvis Presley. She initially started her career as a model from 200 ...
and Gina Gammell—in both of their respective feature directorial debuts—from a screenplay by Keough, Gammell, Franklin Sioux Bob and Bill Reddy. It stars Jojo Bapteise Whiting and Ladainian Crazy Thunder. ''War Pony'' is a 2022 American
drama film In film and television, drama is a category or genre of narrative fiction (or semi-fiction) intended to be more serious than humorous in tone. The drama of this kind is usually qualified with additional terms that specify its particular ...
, Follows the intertwined lives of two young Lakota boys living on the
Pine Ridge Indian Reservation The Pine Ridge Indian Reservation (), also called Pine Ridge Agency, is an Oglala Lakota Indian reservation located in the U.S. state of South Dakota, with a small portion extending into Nebraska. Originally included within the territory of the ...
. ''Reservation Dogs'' is an American comedy-drama television series created by Sterlin Harjo and Taika Waititi for FX Productions. It follows the lives of four Indigenous teenagers in rural Oklahoma, as they spend their days hanging out and committing crimes to earn enough money to leave their reservation community. It is the first American series to feature all Indigenous peoples, Indigenous writers and directors, along with an almost entirely Indigenous peoples of the Americas, Indigenous North American cast and crew.


See also

* List of Native American actors * List of films featuring colonialism * Karl May * Indian Wedding Blessing * Native American Film and Video Festival * Indian burial ground trope * Plastic Shaman * Pre-Code Hollywood * Spaghetti Western * ''
Reel Injun ''Reel Injun'' is a 2009 Canadian documentary film directed by Cree filmmakers Neil Diamond, Catherine Bainbridge, and Jeremiah Hayes that explores the portrayal of Native Americans in film. ''Reel Injun'' is illustrated with excerpts from cla ...
'', a documentary * Native Americans in popular culture * Native Americans in children's literature * Stereotypes about indigenous peoples of North America * 2022 Hollywood apology to Sacheen Littlefeather


References


Bibliography

* Aleiss, Angela.
Making the White Man's Indian. Native Americans and Hollywood Movies
' (Westport/CT and London: Praeger, 2005) * Aleiss, Angela.
"A Race Divided: The Indian Westerns of John Ford," American Indian Culture & Research Journal
', 18 (2), Summer 1995, 25–34. * Berkhofer, Richard.
The White Man's Indian. Images of the American Indian from Columbus to the Present.
' (New York: Random House, 1978). * Brockman, Joshua



' (September 29, 2002). * Bovey, Seth. "Dances with Stereotypes: Western Films and the Myth of the Noble Red."
South Dakota Review
' 7.2 (1993): 115–122. * Ward Churchill, Churchill, Ward, Norbert Hill, and Mary Ann Hill. "Media Stereotyping and Native Response: An Historical Overview." ''The Indian Historian'' 11.4 (1978): 45–56, 63. * Ward Churchill, Churchill, Ward.
Fantasies of the Master Race. Literature, Cinema, and the Colonization of the American Indians
' (San Francisco: City Light Books, 1998). * Vine Deloria, Jr., Deloria, Vine. "Foreword/American Fantasy." In G.M. Bataille and C.L.S. Silet, eds. ''The Pretend Indians: Images of Native Americans in the Movies'' (Ann Arbor: Books on Demand, 1994), ix–xvi. * Hilger, Michael. ''From Savage to Nobleman. Images of Native Americans in Film'' (Lanham/MD and London: Scarecrow Press, 1995). * Kilpatrick, Jacquelyn
''Celluloid Indians. Native Americans in Film.''
(Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1999). * Lutz, Hartmut. ''Approaches. Essays in Native North American Studies and Literatures'' (Augsburg: Wißner, 2002). * Mihelich, John. "Smoke or Signals? American Popular Culture and the Challenge to Hegemonic Images of American Indians in Native American Film." Wíčazo Ša Review, Wicazso Sa Review 16.2 (2001), 129–137. * Nelson, Andrew Patrick.
Still in the Saddle: The Hollywood Western, 1969-1980
' (Norman/OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2015): 81–111. * Nolley, Ken. "John Ford and the Hollywood Indian."
Film and History
' 23.1–4 (1993): 39–49. * O'Connor, John E. "The White Man's Indian. An Institutional Approach." In P.C. Rollins and John E. O'Connor, eds
''Hollywood's Indian: The Portrayal of the Native American in Film''
(Lexington/KY: University Press of Kentucky, 2003), 27–38. * Price, John A. "The Stereotyping of North American Indians in Motion Pictures." In G.M. Bataille and C.L.S. Silet, eds. ''The Pretend Indians: Images of Native Americans in the Movies'' (Ann Arbor: Books on Demand, 1994), 75–91. * Sandos, James, and Larry Burgess. "The Hollywood Indian versus Native Americans. ''Tell Them Willie Boy is Here'' (1969)." In P.C. Rollins and John E. O'Connor, eds
''Hollywood's Indian: The Portrayal of the Native American in Film''
(Lexington/KY: University Press of Kentucky, 2003), 107–120.


Further reading

* Aleiss, Angela.
Hollywood's Native Americans: Stories of Identity and Resistance
' (Santa Barbara/CA: Praeger, 2022) * ''Native Americans on Network TV'' (2013) * Bird, Elizabeth, ed.
Dressing in Feathers. The Construction of the Indian in American Popular Culture
' (Boulder/CO and Oxford: Westview Press, 1996). * Buscombe, Edward. Injuns!' Native Americans in the Movies'' (Bodmin: Reaktion Books, 2006). * Smith, Andrew Brodie. ''Shooting Cowboys and Indians. Silent Western Films, American Culture, and the Birth of Hollywood'' (Boulder/CO: University of Colorado, 2003). * * * *Liza Black. 2020. ''Picturing Indians: Native Americans in Film, 1941-1960''. University of Nebraska Press.https://www.lizablack.com


External links



* [http://libguides.lib.msu.edu/content.php?pid=62444&sid=653036 List of films featuring Native Americans provided by Michigan State University] {{Authority control Culture of the United States Articles containing video clips Native American cultural appropriation Depictions of people on film Films about Native Americans, History of racism in the cinema of the United States, Native American Native Americans in popular culture, Social history of the United States Stereotypes of Native American people, Stock characters Western (genre) films