Mykhailo Petrovych Drahomanov (; 18 September 1841 – 2 July 1895) was a Ukrainian intellectual and public figure. As an academic, Drahomanov was an economist, historian, philosopher, and ethnographer, while as a public intellectual he was a political theorist with

socialist Socialism is an economic ideology, economic and political philosophy encompassing diverse Economic system, economic and social systems characterised by social ownership of the means of production, as opposed to private ownership. It describes ...

leanings, perhaps best known as one of the first proponents of Ukrainian autonomism. For Drahomanov, ethnographic studies had a deep influence on his political ideas, and his politics in turn motivated study of particular areas of Ukrainian folk literature.

Biography

Early life in Poltava (1841-1859)

Mykhailo Drahomanov was born on , into a minor noble family of Zaporozhian Cossack ancestry, in Hadiach, a town in the

Poltava Governorate Poltava Governorate was an administrative-territorial unit (''guberniya'') of the Russian Empire. It was officially created in 1802 from the disbanded Little Russia Governorate (1796–1802), Little Russia Governorate and had its capital in Polt ...

of the

Russian Empire The Russian Empire was an empire that spanned most of northern Eurasia from its establishment in November 1721 until the proclamation of the Russian Republic in September 1917. At its height in the late 19th century, it covered about , roughl ...

. His family's status meant Drahomanov was closely acquainted with the ideas of

progressivism Progressivism is a Left-right political spectrum, left-leaning political philosophy and Reformism, reform political movement, movement that seeks to advance the human condition through social reform. Adherents hold that progressivism has unive ...

from an early age. His father, , was influenced by the liberal ideas of the Enlightenment and provided legal aid to

serfs Serfdom was the status of many peasants under feudalism, specifically relating to manorialism and similar systems. It was a condition of debt bondage and indentured servitude with similarities to and differences from slavery. It developed dur ...

and military conscripts. His uncle, , was a member of the Society of United Slavs and a sympathiser of the Decembrists. Mykhailo Drahomanov became an avid learner, enrolling at the Poltava Classical Gymnasium in 1853, where he was exposed to the works of the socialist

Alexander Herzen Alexander Ivanovich Herzen (; ) was a Russian writer and thinker known as the precursor of Russian socialism and one of the main precursors of agrarian populism (being an ideological ancestor of the Narodniki, Socialist-Revolutionaries, Trudo ...

and the historian Friedrich Schlosser. At the Gymnasium, he also began his career in

journalism Journalism is the production and distribution of reports on the interaction of events, facts, ideas, and people that are the "news of the day" and that informs society to at least some degree of accuracy. The word, a noun, applies to the journ ...

, editing his secret club's handwritten journal. When he took the side of a fellow student against mistreatment by a school inspector, he was expelled from the Gymnasium before he could graduate, only managing to finish his secondary education following the intervention of the liberal pedagogue

Nikolay Pirogov Nikolay Ivanovich Pirogov (Russian: Николай Иванович Пирогов; – ) was a Russian scientist, medical doctor, pedagogue, public figure, and corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1847), one of the most wi ...

Scholarship and activism in Kyiv (1859-1876)

In 1859, Drahomanov enrolled in the

University of Kyiv The Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv (; also known as Kyiv University, Shevchenko University, or KNU) is a public university in Kyiv, Ukraine. The university is the third-oldest university in Ukraine after the University of Lviv and ...

, where he studied

history History is the systematic study of the past, focusing primarily on the Human history, human past. As an academic discipline, it analyses and interprets evidence to construct narratives about what happened and explain why it happened. Some t ...

. He quickly joined a radical student circle that participated in the early stages of the "

Going to the People Going to the People was a Populism, populist movement in the Russian Empire. It was largely inspired by the work of Russian theorists such as Mikhail Bakunin and Pyotr Lavrov, who advocated that groups of dedicated revolutionaries could inspire ...

" campaign, establishing some of the first

folk high school Folk high schools (also ''adult education center'') are institutions for adult education that generally do not grant academic degrees, though certain courses might exist leading to that goal. They are most commonly found in Nordic countries and i ...

in Ukraine, before their suppression by the Russian government in 1862. He was present during the transfer of

Taras Shevchenko Taras Hryhorovych Shevchenko (; ; 9 March 1814 – 10 March 1861) was a Ukrainian poet, writer, artist, public and political figure, folklorist, and ethnographer. He was a fellow of the Imperial Academy of Arts and a member of the Brotherhood o ...

's remains from

Saint Petersburg Saint Petersburg, formerly known as Petrograd and later Leningrad, is the List of cities and towns in Russia by population, second-largest city in Russia after Moscow. It is situated on the Neva, River Neva, at the head of the Gulf of Finland ...

to Kaniv in 1861, giving a speech over his coffin when the funeral train stopped in

Kyiv Kyiv, also Kiev, is the capital and most populous List of cities in Ukraine, city of Ukraine. Located in the north-central part of the country, it straddles both sides of the Dnieper, Dnieper River. As of 1 January 2022, its population was 2, ...

. He also spoke in defense of his mentor Pirogov, who had been dismissed from his post for his liberalism, praising him for his educational reforms, particularly his abolition of

corporal punishment A corporal punishment or a physical punishment is a punishment which is intended to cause physical pain to a person. When it is inflicted on Minor (law), minors, especially in home and school settings, its methods may include spanking or Padd ...

. As a result, Drahomanov was censored by the university administration, but also brought him closer to his liberal professors, with one recommending him to the university's governing council. But Drahomanov's ascent was blocked by the conservative administration, as part of a generalised

reaction Reaction may refer to a process or to a response to an action, event, or exposure. Physics and chemistry *Chemical reaction *Nuclear reaction *Reaction (physics), as defined by Newton's third law * Chain reaction (disambiguation) Biology and ...

to the

January Uprising The January Uprising was an insurrection principally in Russia's Kingdom of Poland that was aimed at putting an end to Russian occupation of part of Poland and regaining independence. It began on 22 January 1863 and continued until the last i ...

Poland Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It extends from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Sudetes and Carpathian Mountains in the south, bordered by Lithuania and Russia to the northeast, Belarus and Ukrai ...

. Following the death of his father, Drahomanov took a job as a geography teacher at a Kyiv high school, in order to financially support his family. His financial situation worsened following his marriage and the subsequent death of his mother-in-law, forcing him to take a second job as a journalist for the ''Petersburg News'', for which he wrote about the situation of life in Ukraine. On 25 May 1864, after defending his

thesis A thesis (: theses), or dissertation (abbreviated diss.), is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the author's research and findings.International Standard ISO 7144: D ...

about

Tiberius Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus ( ; 16 November 42 BC – 16 March AD 37) was Roman emperor from AD 14 until 37. He succeeded his stepfather Augustus, the first Roman emperor. Tiberius was born in Rome in 42 BC to Roman politician Tiberius Cl ...

, he was admitted as a lecturer at Kyiv University. From his studies of

ancient history Ancient history is a time period from the History of writing, beginning of writing and recorded human history through late antiquity. The span of recorded history is roughly 5,000 years, beginning with the development of Sumerian language, ...

, Drahomanov's interests shifted towards Slavic history, particularly concentrating on

folklore Folklore is the body of expressive culture shared by a particular group of people, culture or subculture. This includes oral traditions such as Narrative, tales, myths, legends, proverbs, Poetry, poems, jokes, and other oral traditions. This also ...

. In 1867, he published a collection of

Ukrainian folklore Ukrainian folklore is the folk tradition which has developed in Ukraine and among ethnic Ukrainians. The earliest examples of folklore found in Ukraine is the layer of pan-Slavic folklore that dates back to the ancient Slavic mythology of the Eas ...

, which was the only type of Ukrainian-language publication that wasn't forbidden by the authorities. In 1869, he collaborated with

Volodymyr Antonovych Volodymyr Bonifatiyovych Antonovych (; ; , tr. ''Vladímir Bonifát'evich Antonóvich''; – ) was a prominent Ukrainian historian, archivist and archaeologist, who was known as one of the most prominent figures of the Ukrainian national revi ...

on the publication of a collection of

Ukrainian folk music Ukrainian may refer or relate to: * Ukraine, a country in Eastern Europe * Ukrainians, an East Slavic ethnic group native to Ukraine * Demographics of Ukraine * Ukrainian culture, composed of the material and spiritual values of the Ukrainian peopl ...

. It was at this time that he became involved with the ''

Hromada In Ukraine, a hromada () is the main type of municipality and the third level Administrative divisions of Ukraine, local self-government in Ukraine. The current hromadas were established by the Cabinet of ministers of Ukraine, Government of Uk ...

'', a secret society that advocated for education in the

Ukrainian language Ukrainian (, ) is an East Slavic languages, East Slavic language, spoken primarily in Ukraine. It is the first language, first (native) language of a large majority of Ukrainians. Written Ukrainian uses the Ukrainian alphabet, a variant of t ...

. This drew the attention of the Russian authorities, which suspected the society had links with the Polish insurrection and began to repress the nascent movement for

Ukrainian nationalism Ukrainian nationalism (, ) is the promotion of the unity of Ukrainians as a people and the promotion of the identity of Ukraine as a nation state. The origins of modern Ukrainian nationalism emerge during the Khmelnytsky Uprising, Cossack upri ...

, with

Pyotr Valuyev Count Pyotr Aleksandrovich Valuev (; September 22, 1815 – January 27, 1890) was a Russian politician and writer. Biography Valuev was born in the Tsaritsyno District of Moscow on September 22, 1815. Valuev served as Emperor Alexander II's ...

prohibiting the printing of works in Ukrainian. When Drahomanov published a review of a book by , criticising it for

Great Russian chauvinism Great Russian chauvinism () is a term defined by the early Soviet government officials, most notably Vladimir Lenin, to describe an ideology of the "dominant exploiting classes of the nation, holding a dominant (sovereign) position in the state, de ...

, Drahomanov was publicly accused by the Russian press of advocating

separatism Separatism is the advocacy of cultural, ethnic, tribal, religious, racial, regional, governmental, or gender separation from the larger group. As with secession, separatism conventionally refers to full political separation. Groups simply seekin ...

and subsequently fell under surveillance by the

secret police image:Putin-Stasi-Ausweis.png, 300px, Vladimir Putin's secret police identity card, issued by the East German Stasi while he was working as a Soviet KGB liaison officer from 1985 to 1989. Both organizations used similar forms of repression. Secre ...

. Nevertheless, he remained active in radical politics, even criticising revolutionary students from Saint Petersburg that advocated for

centralized government A centralized government (also united government) is one in which both executive and legislative power is concentrated centrally at the higher level as opposed to it being more distributed at various lower level governments. In a national conte ...

in Russia. In 1870, when Drahomanov defended his

master's thesis A thesis (: theses), or dissertation (abbreviated diss.), is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the author's research and findings.International Standard ISO 7144: D ...

about

Tacitus Publius Cornelius Tacitus, known simply as Tacitus ( , ; – ), was a Roman historian and politician. Tacitus is widely regarded as one of the greatest Roman historians by modern scholars. Tacitus’ two major historical works, ''Annals'' ( ...

and was nominated by the university council to become an assistant professor, his appointment was initially blocked by Shirinsky-Shikhmatov, which prevented him from receiving funds during his scholarly trip abroad. His travels took him first to

Germany Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its sixteen States of Germany, constituent states have a total popu ...

, where he witnessed the

Franco-Prussian War The Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War, often referred to in France as the War of 1870, was a conflict between the Second French Empire and the North German Confederation led by the Kingdom of Prussia. Lasting from 19 July 1870 to 28 Janua ...

, attended lectures by

Theodor Mommsen Christian Matthias Theodor Mommsen (; ; 30 November 1817 – 1 November 1903) was a German classical scholar, historian, jurist, journalist, politician and archaeologist. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest classicists of the 19th ce ...

and studied the Slavic cultural movement in

Lusatia Lusatia (; ; ; ; ; ), otherwise known as Sorbia, is a region in Central Europe, formerly entirely in Germany and today territorially split between Germany and modern-day Poland. Lusatia stretches from the Bóbr and Kwisa rivers in the eas ...

. He then went on to

Switzerland Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a landlocked country located in west-central Europe. It is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland ...

, where he met a number of Russian emigres and debated with them the establishment of

socialism Socialism is an economic ideology, economic and political philosophy encompassing diverse Economic system, economic and social systems characterised by social ownership of the means of production, as opposed to private ownership. It describes ...

, himself declaring that

political freedom Political freedom (also known as political autonomy or political agency) is a central concept in history and political thought and one of the most important features of democratic societies.Hannah Arendt, "What is Freedom?", ''Between Past and ...

was a necessary prerequisite, while others considered Russian peasants to already be ready for a socialist society. He finally went to

Austria-Hungary Austria-Hungary, also referred to as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Dual Monarchy or the Habsburg Monarchy, was a multi-national constitutional monarchy in Central Europe#Before World War I, Central Europe between 1867 and 1918. A military ...

, where he met

Ukrainians Ukrainians (, ) are an East Slavs, East Slavic ethnic group native to Ukraine. Their native tongue is Ukrainian language, Ukrainian, and the majority adhere to Eastern Orthodox Church, Eastern Orthodoxy, forming the List of contemporary eth ...

from Galicia, then a possession of the

Habsburg monarchy The Habsburg monarchy, also known as Habsburg Empire, or Habsburg Realm (), was the collection of empires, kingdoms, duchies, counties and other polities (composite monarchy) that were ruled by the House of Habsburg. From the 18th century it is ...

. When he visited Galicia himself, he discovered that society there was largely stagnant, with inertia even affecting the radicals and populists. In an attempt to combat this, he took to writing a number of progressive articles, in which he criticised the Galician political leadership, and established the

Shevchenko Scientific Society The Shevchenko Scientific Society (), founded in 1873, is a Ukrainian scientific society devoted to the promotion of scholarly research and publication. Unlike the government-funded National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, the society is a pu ...

, which became a center for Ukrainian scholarship in

Lviv Lviv ( or ; ; ; see #Names and symbols, below for other names) is the largest city in western Ukraine, as well as the List of cities in Ukraine, fifth-largest city in Ukraine, with a population of It serves as the administrative centre of ...

. During his trip, he also continued his studies of ancient history, collected

folklore studies Folklore studies (also known as folkloristics, tradition studies or folk life studies in the UK) is the academic discipline devoted to the study of folklore. This term, along with its synonyms, gained currency in the 1950s to distinguish the ac ...

for comparison and began to write his first political works. In 1872, he published an article in ''

Vestnik Evropy ''Vestnik Evropy'' () (''Herald of Europe'' or ''Messenger of Europe'') was the major liberal magazine of late-nineteenth-century Russia. It was published from 1866 to 1918. The magazine (named for an earlier publication edited by Nikolay Kara ...

'', in which he argued that policies of

Russification Russification (), Russianisation or Russianization, is a form of cultural assimilation in which non-Russians adopt Russian culture and Russian language either voluntarily or as a result of a deliberate state policy. Russification was at times ...

targeting

ethnic minorities The term "minority group" has different meanings, depending on the context. According to common usage, it can be defined simply as a group in society with the least number of individuals, or less than half of a population. Usually a minority g ...

aided the eastern expansion of the

German Empire The German Empire (),; ; World Book, Inc. ''The World Book dictionary, Volume 1''. World Book, Inc., 2003. p. 572. States that Deutsches Reich translates as "German Realm" and was a former official name of Germany. also referred to as Imperia ...

. In September 1873, Drahomanov arrived back in Kyiv, where he was finally appointed as an assistant professor for the university and joined the Ukrainian section of the

Russian Geographical Society The Russian Geographical Society (), or RGO, is a learned society based in Saint Petersburg, Russia. It promotes geography, exploration and nature protection with research programs in fields including oceanography, ethnography, ecology and stati ...

, with which he published his collections of Ukrainian folklore and folk music. The Society and Drahomanov himself quickly came under attack by the city's reactionaries around the newspaper ''

Kievlyanin ''Kievlyanin'' () was a conservative Russian newspaper, published in Kyiv in 1864–1919. The newspaper was labeling Ukrainians as "Mazepinists" (precursor of Banderites). Ukrainian poet and statesman Pavlo Tychyna considered the publishing as "c ...

'', which accused the Society of separatism and Drahomanov of being a Polish agent. After Drahomanov began working at the ''Kievsky Telegraph'', he fell under even greater censorship by the Russian authorities, which removed his articles about Ukraine from Russian newspapers. In May 1875, the local curator requested Drahomanov resign from the university, due to the allegations of separatism. But instead of resigning, he returned to Galicia, where he continued his work of

Europeanisation Europeanisation (or Europeanization, see spelling differences) refers to a number of related phenomena and patterns of change: *The process in which a notionally non-European subject (be it a culture, a language, a city or a nation) adopts a numbe ...

and worked as a liaison between Ukrainians in the empires of Austria and Russia, even advocating for the liberation of

Carpathian Ruthenia Transcarpathia (, ) is a historical region on the border between Central and Eastern Europe, mostly located in western Ukraine's Zakarpattia Oblast. From the Hungarian Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin, conquest of the Carpathian Basin ...

from Hungarian rule. Drahomanov's influence helped to stimulate political life in Galicia, especially through his articles in the student newspaper ''Druh'', which formed the nucleus of what would become the

Ukrainian Radical Party The Ukrainian Radical Party (URP) (, ''Ukraiinska Radykalna Partiia''), founded in October 1890 as Ruthenian-Ukrainian Radical Party and based on the Radicalism (historical), radical movement in western Ukraine dating from the 1870s, was the firs ...

But Drahomanov's presence in Galicia brought greater scrutiny by the Russian authorities, with Alexander II himself ordering Drahomanov's dismissal from Kyiv University and appointing a commission suppress Ukrainian separatism. In May 1876, Alexander II issued the

Ems Ukaz The Ems Ukaz or Ems Ukase (; ), was an internal decree (''ukaz'') of Emperor Alexander II of Russia issued on banning the use of the Ukrainian language in print except for reprinting old documents. The ukaz also forbade the import of Ukrainia ...

, which prohibited all Ukrainian language publications and public performances, shut down the Ukrainian Geographical Society and formally banished Ukrainian nationalists, including Drahomanov himself. The ''Hromada'' responded by appointing Drahomanov to represent the Ukrainian national movement abroad and pledged to financially support him in exile. In May 1876, Drahomanov left Ukraine for

Vienna Vienna ( ; ; ) is the capital city, capital, List of largest cities in Austria, most populous city, and one of Federal states of Austria, nine federal states of Austria. It is Austria's primate city, with just over two million inhabitants. ...

. But before he could get settled, the Austrian imperial government initiated against the Galician socialist movement and accused Drahomanov himself of being its leader, forcing him to flee to Switzerland.

Exile in Switzerland (1876-1889)

Geneva Geneva ( , ; ) ; ; . is the List of cities in Switzerland, second-most populous city in Switzerland and the most populous in French-speaking Romandy. Situated in the southwest of the country, where the Rhône exits Lake Geneva, it is the ca ...

, Drahomanov began working on a socialist political program for the ''Hromada'', as well as several other literary works: penning a collection of Ukrainian socialist music; writing about living and working conditions in Ukraine; and editing a novel by Panas Myrny and . He again engaged in a debate with Russian revolutionaries, such as those of

Narodnaya Volya Narodnaya Volya () was a late 19th-century revolutionary socialist political organization operating in the Russian Empire, which conducted assassinations of government officials in an attempt to overthrow the autocratic Tsarist system. The org ...

, as he considered the establishment of socialism to require a gradual evolutionary process, rather than a swift revolutionary one. He also criticised their tendencies towards

authoritarianism Authoritarianism is a political system characterized by the rejection of political plurality, the use of strong central power to preserve the political ''status quo'', and reductions in democracy, separation of powers, civil liberties, and ...

and

Machiavellianism Machiavellianism may refer to: *Machiavellianism (politics), the political philosophy of Niccolò Machiavelli, usually associated with various forms of political realism. *Machiavellianism (psychology), a scale in personality psychology that meas ...

, particularly disapproving of their terrorist tactics, which culminated with the assassination of Alexander II. In August 1881, Drahomanov became editor-in-chief for the journal ''Volnoye Slovo'', which attracted readers and correspondents from opponents of the

Tsarist autocracy Tsarist autocracy (), also called Tsarism, was an autocracy, a form of absolute monarchy in the Grand Duchy of Moscow and its successor states, the Tsardom of Russia and the Russian Empire. In it, the Tsar possessed in principle authority an ...

, due to its advocacy of the ''

Zemstvo A zemstvo (, , , ''zemstva'') was an institution of local government set up in consequence of the emancipation reform of 1861 of Imperial Russia by Emperor Alexander II of Russia. Nikolay Milyutin elaborated the idea of the zemstvo, and the fi ...

'' system of

self-governance Self-governance, self-government, self-sovereignty or self-rule is the ability of a person or group to exercise all necessary functions of regulation without intervention from an external authority (sociology), authority. It may refer to pers ...

and its opposition to

revolutionary terror Revolutionary terror, also referred to as revolutionary terrorism or reign of terror, refers to the institutionalized application of force to counter-revolutionaries, particularly during the French Revolution from the years 1793 to 1795 (see t ...

. Following the

1917 Revolution The Russian Revolution was a period of political and social change in Russia, starting in 1917. This period saw Russia abolish its monarchy and adopt a socialist form of government following two successive revolutions and a civil war. It ...

, the journal was discovered to have been financially supported by the

Okhrana The Department for the Protection of Public Safety and Order (), usually called the Guard Department () and commonly abbreviated in modern English sources as the Okhrana ( rus , Охрана, p=ɐˈxranə, a=Ru-охрана.ogg, t= The Guard) w ...

, due specifically to Drahomanov's opposition to Narodnaya Volya's terrorism, which

Pavel Shuvalov Pavel Alekseyevich Shuvalov (; 1 March 1968 – 2020), known as the Nevsky Forest Park Maniac (), was a Soviet-Russian serial killer who killed 3 children between 1991 and 1995. Biography Shuvalov was born in 1968 in Leningrad in a well-to-do ...

hoped would split the

revolutionary socialist Revolutionary socialism is a political philosophy, doctrine, and tradition within socialism that stresses the idea that a social revolution is necessary to bring about structural changes in society. More specifically, it is the view that revolu ...

movement. By May 1883, the journal had shuttered, after Alexander III committed to reactionary politics and dissolved Shuvalov's project. The following month, Drahomanov was joined in Geneva by other Ukrainian radicals, who together drew up a

federalist The term ''federalist'' describes several political beliefs around the world. It may also refer to the concept of parties, whose members or supporters call themselves ''Federalists''. History Europe federation In Europe, proponents of deep ...

and democratic program for remodelling

Eastern Europe Eastern Europe is a subregion of the Europe, European continent. As a largely ambiguous term, it has a wide range of geopolitical, geographical, ethnic, cultural and socio-economic connotations. Its eastern boundary is marked by the Ural Mountain ...

: the ''Volny Soyuz'' (. At this time, Drahomanov also aided in the publication of a geographical study of Ukraine by

Élisée Reclus Jacques Élisée Reclus (; 15 March 18304 July 1905) was a French geographer, writer and anarchist. He produced his 19-volume masterwork, ''La Nouvelle Géographie universelle, la terre et les hommes'' ("Universal Geography"), over a period of ...

and publicised the Russian imperial prohibition of the Ukrainian language to

Western Europe Western Europe is the western region of Europe. The region's extent varies depending on context. The concept of "the West" appeared in Europe in juxtaposition to "the East" and originally applied to the Western half of the ancient Mediterranean ...

an audiences. He also continued his involvement in Galician socialist politics, sending letters and articles to various publications and progressive political leaders, and keeping a close correspondence with his disciples

Ivan Franko Ivan Yakovych Franko (, ; 27 August 1856 – 28 May 1916) was a Ukrainian poet, writer, social and literary critic, journalist, translator, economist, political activist, doctor of philosophy, ethnographer, and the author of the first d ...

and . By this time, Drahomanov's radical socialist politics were beginning to alienate other members of the ''Hromada'', which had moved closer towards

right-wing politics Right-wing politics is the range of Ideology#Political ideologies, political ideologies that view certain social orders and Social stratification, hierarchies as inevitable, natural, normal, or desirable, typically supporting this position b ...

in the face of the increasingly reactionary political climate in Kyiv and was now worried that his radicalism might prevent the Russian government from loosening restrictions on the Ukrainian language. In 1886, the ''Hromada'' stopped providing Drahomanov with financial assistance, leaving him outcast and isolated.

Final years in Bulgaria (1889-1895)

In 1889, while working on a history of

Ukrainian literature The term Ukrainian literature () is normally used to describe works of literature written in the Ukrainian language. In a broader sense it can also relate to all literary works created in the territory of Ukraine. Ukrainian literature mostly de ...

, Drahomanov was invited by the

government of Bulgaria The Council of Ministers (, ''Ministerski savet'') is the main authority of the executive power in the Republic of Bulgaria. It consists of the Prime Minister of Bulgaria and all the specialized ministers. Overview Bulgaria employs a dua ...

to teach history for three years at the

University of Sofia Sofia University "St. Kliment Ohridski" () is a public research university in Sofia, Bulgaria. It is the oldest institution of higher education in Bulgaria. Founded on 1 October 1888, the edifice of the university was constructed between 1924 ...

, once again providing him with financial security. Despite demands by the Russian imperial government to expel him and other "

nihilists Nihilism () encompasses various views that reject certain aspects of existence. There have been different nihilist positions, including the views that life is meaningless, that moral values are baseless, and that knowledge is impossible. Thes ...

" from

Bulgaria Bulgaria, officially the Republic of Bulgaria, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the eastern portion of the Balkans directly south of the Danube river and west of the Black Sea. Bulgaria is bordered by Greece and Turkey t ...

, in 1893, his contract was renewed for another three years. Drahomanov's time in

Sofia Sofia is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Bulgaria, largest city of Bulgaria. It is situated in the Sofia Valley at the foot of the Vitosha mountain, in the western part of the country. The city is built west of the Is ...

was largely spent lecturing on ancient civilisations and studying Ukrainian folklore and literature, although he still maintained his collaboration with the radical press in his "second homeland" of Galicia. In his articles for the Galician press, he defended

freedom of religion Freedom of religion or religious liberty, also known as freedom of religion or belief (FoRB), is a principle that supports the freedom of an individual or community, in public or private, to manifest religion or belief in teaching, practice ...

and campaigned for the

secularization In sociology, secularization () is a multilayered concept that generally denotes "a transition from a religious to a more worldly level." There are many types of secularization and most do not lead to atheism or irreligion, nor are they automatica ...

of Galician society, opposing the influence of

clericalism Clericalism is the application of the formal, church-based leadership or opinion of ordained clergy in matters of the church or in broader political and sociocultural contexts. The journalist has stated that clericalism was not part of the Gospe ...

in the region. He also wrote a number of works about the situation in

Dnieper Ukraine The term Dnieper Ukraine (), usually refers to territory on either side of the middle course of the Dnieper River. The Ukrainian name derives from ''nad‑'' (prefix: "above, over") + ''Dnipró'' ("Dnieper") + ''‑shchyna'' (suffix denoting a g ...

, managing to win over

Borys Hrinchenko Borys Dmytrovych Hrinchenko (, ; December 9, 1863 – May 6, 1910) was a classical Ukrainian prose writer, political activist, historian, publicist, and ethnographer. He was instrumental in the Ukrainian cultural revival of the late 19th and be ...

to his own radical perspective. Drahomanov's continuing radical journalism made enemies of the

Polish nobility The ''szlachta'' (; ; ) were the nobility, noble estate of the realm in the Kingdom of Poland, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Depending on the definition, they were either a warrior "caste" or a social ...

in Galicia, the

in Russia, which each accused him of being an agent for the other. He was also accused of revolutionary centralists in Russia and Galicia, as well as Ukrainian right-wing nationalists, of being an

agent provocateur An is a person who actively entices another person to commit a crime that would not otherwise have been committed and then reports the person to the authorities. They may target individuals or groups. In jurisdictions in which conspiracy is a ...

for the Russian Empire. Despite these accusations, he kept to his political convictions, upholding

self-determination Self-determination refers to a people's right to form its own political entity, and internal self-determination is the right to representative government with full suffrage. Self-determination is a cardinal principle in modern international la ...

and

internationalism Internationalism may refer to: * Cosmopolitanism, the view that all human ethnic groups belong to a single community based on a shared morality as opposed to communitarianism, patriotism and nationalism * International Style, a major architectura ...

. With these principles in mind, he and his followers established the

, which helped spread and celebrate his ideas throughout Ukraine, despite the censorship of the Russian government. But by the time his ideas were beginning to receive widespread recognition, he was beginning to suffer from an

abdominal aortic aneurysm Abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) is a localized enlargement of the abdominal aorta such that the diameter is greater than 3 cm or more than 50% larger than normal. An AAA usually causes no symptoms, except during rupture. Occasionally, abdo ...

, which left him with a fatal

cardiovascular disease Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is any disease involving the heart or blood vessels. CVDs constitute a class of diseases that includes: coronary artery diseases (e.g. angina, heart attack), heart failure, hypertensive heart disease, rheumati ...

. On 20 June 1895, Mykhailo Drahomanov died shortly after giving a lecture at the University of Sofia. He was buried in the

Central Sofia Cemetery The Central Sofia Cemetery () or the Orlandovtsi Cemetery ("Орландовци") is the main cemetery in Sofia, the capital of Bulgaria. The cemetery has several chapels used by various Christian denominations, such as a Bulgarian Orthodox ch ...

Works

;Collections *''Historical Songs of the Ukrainian People'' (Kyiv, 1874–1875) *''Ukrainian Popular Legends and Tales'' (Kyiv, 1876) *''Political Songs of the Ukrainian People'' (Geneva, 1876) ;Articles *''Review: "Primer for Use in the Folk Schools of the School District of Kyiv"'' (Kyiv, 1866) *''On the Question of Ukrainian Literature'' (Vienna, 1876) *''Ukrainian literature banned by the Russian government'' (Paris, 1878) *
Panslav Federalism
' (Grenoble, 1878) *

' (Vienna, 1880) *

' (Geneva, 1881) *

' (Geneva, 1881) *

' (Geneva, 1882) *

' (Geneva, 1882) *

' (Geneva, 1884) *''Peculiar Thoughts on the Ukrainian National Cause'' (Lviv, 1891) *''Letters to Dnieper Ukraine'' (Lviv, 1893) *

' (Chicago, 1893) *

' (Published posthumously) ;Journals *''Kievsky Telegraf'' [] (Kyiv, 1874–1875) *''Hromada'' [] (Geneva, 1876–1881) *''Volnoye Slovo'' [] (Geneva, 1881–1883)

Personal life

Several members of Drahomanov's family were relevant in their own right. He was an uncle of Ukrainian poet Larysa Kosach (better known as

Lesya Ukrainka Lesya Ukrainka (, ; born Larysa Petrivna Kosach, ; – ) was one of Ukrainian literature's foremost writers, best known for her poems and plays. She was also an active political, civil, and feminist activist. Among her best-known works are ...

), whose own education he contributed to, and he was a brother of the writer and ethnographer Olha Kosach (

Olena Pchilka Olha Petrivna Kosach (birth name, née Drahomanova 29 June 1849 – 4 October 1930), better known by her pen name Olena Pchilka (), was a Ukrainians, Ukrainian publisher, writer, ethnographer, interpreter, and civil activist. She was the ...

). With his wife, actress , he had a daughter,

Lidia Shishmanova Lidia Shishmanova (17 October 1866 – 7 February 1937) was a Ukrainian and Bulgarian writer, journalist, theatre and music critic, translator and social activist. Early life and family Lidia Shishmanova was born Lidia Drahomanova, on 17 Octo ...

, who became the wife of the Bulgarian writer and politician Ivan Shishmanov.

Political thought

In his

political journalism Political journalism is a broad branch of journalism that includes coverage of all aspects of politics and political science, although the term usually refers specifically to coverage of civil governments and political power. Political journ ...

, Drahomanov was both fiercely critical of the Ukrainian national movement while writing in the Ukrainian language and ardently defended Ukrainian self-determination while writing in the Russian language. As a result, he was denounced respectively as a socialist internationalist and as a

bourgeois nationalist In Marxist theory, bourgeois nationalism is the ideology of the ruling capitalist class which aims to overcome class antagonism between proletariat and bourgeoisie by appealing to national unity. It is seen as a distraction from engaging in class ...

by both sides of the debate. His system of thought was based in an opposition to

dogma Dogma, in its broadest sense, is any belief held definitively and without the possibility of reform. It may be in the form of an official system of principles or doctrines of a religion, such as Judaism, Roman Catholicism, Protestantism, or Islam ...

tism, which led him to reject more rigid

political philosophy Political philosophy studies the theoretical and conceptual foundations of politics. It examines the nature, scope, and Political legitimacy, legitimacy of political institutions, such as State (polity), states. This field investigates different ...

that claimed to have solutions to all

social issues A social issue is a problem that affects many people within a society. It is a group of common problems in present-day society that many people strive to solve. It is often the consequence of factors extending beyond an individual's control. Soc ...

. This resulted in his own political philosophy becoming

syncretic Syncretism () is the practice of combining different beliefs and various schools of thought. Syncretism involves the merging or assimilation of several originally discrete traditions, especially in the theology and mythology of religion, thus ...

, drawing from both

liberalism Liberalism is a Political philosophy, political and moral philosophy based on the Individual rights, rights of the individual, liberty, consent of the governed, political equality, the right to private property, and equality before the law. ...

and

;

patriotism Patriotism is the feeling of love, devotion, and a sense of attachment to one's country or state. This attachment can be a combination of different feelings for things such as the language of one's homeland, and its ethnic, cultural, politic ...

and

cosmopolitanism Cosmopolitanism is the idea that all human beings are members of a single community. Its adherents are known as cosmopolitan or cosmopolite. Cosmopolitanism is both prescriptive and aspirational, believing humans can and should be " world citizen ...

; and

Slavophilia Slavophilia () was a movement originating from the 19th century that wanted the Russian Empire to be developed on the basis of values and institutions derived from Russia's early history. Slavophiles opposed the influences of Western Europe in Rus ...

and Westernism. Drahomanov's politics centered

freedom Freedom is the power or right to speak, act, and change as one wants without hindrance or restraint. Freedom is often associated with liberty and autonomy in the sense of "giving oneself one's own laws". In one definition, something is "free" i ...

and

dignity Dignity is a human's contentment attained by satisfying physiological needs and a need in development. The content of contemporary dignity is derived in the new natural law theory as a distinct human good. As an extension of the Enlightenment- ...

, concerning itself mainly with strengthening

human rights Human rights are universally recognized Morality, moral principles or Social norm, norms that establish standards of human behavior and are often protected by both Municipal law, national and international laws. These rights are considered ...

and defending those rights from the

State State most commonly refers to: * State (polity), a centralized political organization that regulates law and society within a territory **Sovereign state, a sovereign polity in international law, commonly referred to as a country **Nation state, a ...

, as Drahomanov believed the expansion of

liberty Liberty is the state of being free within society from oppressive restrictions imposed by authority on one's way of life, behavior, or political views. The concept of liberty can vary depending on perspective and context. In the Constitutional ...

resulted from the limiting of government power by way of

political revolution In political science, a revolution (, 'a turn around') is a rapid, fundamental transformation of a society's class, state, ethnic or religious structures. According to sociologist Jack Goldstone, all revolutions contain "a common set of elemen ...

. He therefore considered the goal of mankind to be movement towards

anarchy Anarchy is a form of society without rulers. As a type of stateless society, it is commonly contrasted with states, which are centralized polities that claim a monopoly on violence over a permanent territory. Beyond a lack of government, it can ...

, a society based on free association and

mutual aid Mutual aid is an organizational model where voluntary, collaborative exchanges of resources and services for common benefit take place amongst community members to overcome social, economic, and political barriers to meeting common needs. This ...

. He was influenced directly by

Pierre-Joseph Proudhon Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (, ; ; 1809 – 19 January 1865) was a French anarchist, socialist, philosopher, and economist who founded mutualist philosophy and is considered by many to be the "father of anarchism". He was the first person to ca ...

, who had formulated

anarchism Anarchism is a political philosophy and Political movement, movement that seeks to abolish all institutions that perpetuate authority, coercion, or Social hierarchy, hierarchy, primarily targeting the state (polity), state and capitalism. A ...

in opposition to the dominant theories of

and

centralism Centralisation or centralization (American English) is the process by which the activities of an organisation, particularly those regarding planning, decision-making, and framing strategies and policies, become concentrated within a particular ...

, in developing his own ideas on

federalism Federalism is a mode of government that combines a general level of government (a central or federal government) with a regional level of sub-unit governments (e.g., provinces, State (sub-national), states, Canton (administrative division), ca ...

. His other influences included

Francesc Pi i Margall Francesc Pi i Margall (Spanish: Francisco Pi y Margall; 29 April 1824 – 29 November 1901) was a Spanish federalist and republican politician and theorist who served as president of the short-lived First Spanish Republic in 1873. He was ...

John Stuart Mill John Stuart Mill (20 May 1806 – 7 May 1873) was an English philosopher, political economist, politician and civil servant. One of the most influential thinkers in the history of liberalism and social liberalism, he contributed widely to s ...

Édouard René de Laboulaye __NOTOC__ Édouard René Lefèbvre de Laboulaye (; 18 January 1811 – 25 May 1883) was a French jurist, poet, author and abolitionism in France, anti-slavery activist. Attentive observer of the political life of the United States and admirer of ...

Odilon Barrot Camille Hyacinthe Odilon Barrot (; 19 July 1791 – 6 August 1873) was a French politician who was briefly head of the council of ministers under king Louis Phillipe in 1848–49. Early life Barrot was born at Villefort, Lozère. He belonged ...

, and

Benjamin Constant Henri-Benjamin Constant de Rebecque (25 October 1767 – 8 December 1830), or simply Benjamin Constant, was a Swiss and French political thinker, activist and writer on political theory and religion. A committed republican from 1795, Constant ...

. Drahomanov believed that true freedom could be accomplished through a federation of equal and autonomous individuals, groups and communities. In terms of state forms, he was intrigued most by the federative democracy in

and the constitutionalism in the

United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Northwestern Europe, off the coast of European mainland, the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...

. He had a negative opinion of the

French Republic France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...

, as he believed the centralising tendency of the

Jacobins The Society of the Friends of the Constitution (), renamed the Society of the Jacobins, Friends of Freedom and Equality () after 1792 and commonly known as the Jacobin Club () or simply the Jacobins (; ), was the most influential List of polit ...

had been

counterrevolutionary A counter-revolutionary or an anti-revolutionary is anyone who opposes or resists a revolution, particularly one who acts after a revolution has occurred, in order to try to overturn it or reverse its course, in full or in part. The adjective "c ...

and had ultimately resulted in the suppression of

workers' rights Labor rights or workers' rights are both legal rights and human rights relating to labor relations between workers and employers. These rights are codified in national and international labor and employment law. In general, ...

freedom of association Freedom of association encompasses both an individual's right to join or leave groups voluntarily, the right of the group to take collective action to pursue the interests of its members, and the right of an association to accept or decline membe ...

. He was opposed to the concept of

popular sovereignty Popular sovereignty is the principle that the leaders of a state and its government A government is the system or group of people governing an organized community, generally a State (polity), state. In the case of its broad associativ ...

, what he called the "

autocracy Autocracy is a form of government in which absolute power is held by the head of state and Head of government, government, known as an autocrat. It includes some forms of monarchy and all forms of dictatorship, while it is contrasted with demo ...

of the people", represented in

Jean-Jacques Rousseau Jean-Jacques Rousseau (, ; ; 28 June 1712 – 2 July 1778) was a Republic of Geneva, Genevan philosopher (''philosophes, philosophe''), writer, and composer. His political philosophy influenced the progress of the Age of Enlightenment through ...

's theory of the

social contract In moral and political philosophy, the social contract is an idea, theory, or model that usually, although not always, concerns the legitimacy of the authority of the state over the individual. Conceptualized in the Age of Enlightenment, it ...

. He believed that the idea of the "

popular will Popular Will (, abbr. VP) is a political party in Venezuela founded by former Mayor of Chacao, Leopoldo López, who is its national co-ordinator. The party previously held 14 out of 167 seats in the Venezuelan National Assembly, the country ...

" was diametrically opposed to

, as the will of the people could be used to justify

majority rule In social choice theory, the majority rule (MR) is a social choice rule which says that, when comparing two options (such as bills or candidates), the option preferred by more than half of the voters (a ''majority'') should win. In political ...

or even

dictatorship A dictatorship is an autocratic form of government which is characterized by a leader, or a group of leaders, who hold governmental powers with few to no Limited government, limitations. Politics in a dictatorship are controlled by a dictator, ...

, which endangered both

individual and group rights Individual rights, also known as natural rights, are rights held by individuals by virtue of being human. Some theists believe individual rights are bestowed by God. An individual right is a moral claim to freedom of action. Group rights, also k ...

Legacy

Drahomanov was influential on the development of technical vocabulary in Ukrainian prose, particularly that of political terminology, for which he attempted to create uniquely Ukrainian neologisms, independent from both international terminology. Drahomanov also tried to popularize his own

orthographic reform A spelling reform is a deliberate, often authoritatively sanctioned or mandated change to spelling rules. Proposals for such reform are fairly common, and over the years, many languages have undergone such reforms. Recent high-profile examples a ...

of the Ukrainian language, based on a simplified and rationalised version of

Panteleimon Kulish Panteleimon Oleksandrovych Kulish (; 7 August 1819 – 14 February 1897) was a Ukrainian writer, critic, poet, folklorist, and translator. Life Panteleimon Kulish was born 7 August 1819 in Voronizh (now Sumy Oblast) into an impoverished ...

's phonetic orthography, which was adopted by the writers

and

. Drahomanov spearheaded the development of independent Ukrainian political organisations in Galicia, the first of which was established in 1875 by his followers, but this was quickly suppressed by the imperial authorities. In October 1890, a coalition of Drahomanovite intellectuals and grass-roots peasant activists in

established the first Ukrainian political party: the

, which defended Drahomanov's

ethical socialism Ethical socialism is a political ideology and philosophy that appeals to socialism on ethical and moral grounds as opposed to consumeristic, economic, and egoistic grounds. It emphasizes the need for a morally conscious economy based upon the ...

and declared its aim to be the

independence Independence is a condition of a nation, country, or state, in which residents and population, or some portion thereof, exercise self-government, and usually sovereignty, over its territory. The opposite of independence is the status of ...

of Ukraine. In 1899,

moderates Moderate is an ideological category which entails Centrism, centrist views on a liberal-conservative spectrum. It may also designate a rejection of radical politics, radical or extremism, extreme views, especially in regard to politics and religi ...

left the party and merged into the National Democratic Party, which represented the more liberal aspect of Drahomanov's thought. These two parties formed the basis of a

two-party system A two-party system is a political party system in which two major political parties consistently dominate the political landscape. At any point in time, one of the two parties typically holds a majority in the legislature and is usually referr ...

in Galician Ukrainian politics, going on to lead the establishment of the

West Ukrainian People's Republic The West Ukrainian People's Republic (; West Ukrainian People's Republic#Name, see other names) was a short-lived state that controlled most of Eastern Galicia from November 1918 to July 1919. It included major cities of Lviv, Ternopil, Kolom ...

after the

dissolution of Austria-Hungary The dissolution of Austria-Hungary was a major political event that occurred as a result of the growth of internal social contradictions and the separation of different parts of Austria-Hungary. The more immediate reasons for the collapse of the ...

. Drahomanov was not as influential in

, which only attained

after the

1905 Revolution The Russian Revolution of 1905, also known as the First Russian Revolution, was a revolution in the Russian Empire which began on 22 January 1905 and led to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy under the Russian Constitution of 1906, t ...

. Two eastern Ukrainian parties that adopted Drahomanov's program were the Socialist-Federalist Party and the

Socialist-Revolutionary Party The Socialist Revolutionary Party (SR; ,, ) was a major socialist political party in the late Russian Empire, during both phases of the Russian Revolution, and in early Soviet Russia. The party members were known as Esers (). The SRs were ag ...

, which came to hold a strong influence in Ukraine following the

. Drahomanov's ideas on

multiculturalism Multiculturalism is the coexistence of multiple cultures. The word is used in sociology, in political philosophy, and colloquially. In sociology and everyday usage, it is usually a synonym for ''Pluralism (political theory), ethnic'' or cultura ...

influenced the constitution of the

Ukrainian People's Republic The Ukrainian People's Republic (UPR) was a short-lived state in Eastern Europe. Prior to its proclamation, the Central Council of Ukraine was elected in March 1917 Ukraine after the Russian Revolution, as a result of the February Revolution, ...

(UPR) by the Central Council, which extended

autonomy In developmental psychology and moral, political, and bioethical philosophy, autonomy is the capacity to make an informed, uncoerced decision. Autonomous organizations or institutions are independent or self-governing. Autonomy can also be ...

and

to national minorities when it declared the independence of Ukraine. As it grew, the Ukrainian government used Drahomanov's federal model to guarantee

regional autonomy Regional autonomy is the authority of a region to govern and administer the interests of the local people according to its own initiatives. 21st-century examples of disputes over autonomy include the Basque Country and Catalonia in Spain, Sici ...

, even proposing the reorganization of the entirety of

into a

confederation A confederation (also known as a confederacy or league) is a political union of sovereign states united for purposes of common action. Usually created by a treaty, confederations of states tend to be established for dealing with critical issu ...

of independent nations. Following the collapse of the UPR, exiled Ukrainian nationalists shifted towards the

far-right Far-right politics, often termed right-wing extremism, encompasses a range of ideologies that are marked by ultraconservatism, authoritarianism, ultranationalism, and nativism. This political spectrum situates itself on the far end of the ...

, with some directly blaming Drahomanov's ideas for their defeat in the

Ukrainian War of Independence The Ukrainian War of Independence, also referred to as the Ukrainian–Soviet War in Ukraine, lasted from March 1917 to November 1921 and was part of the wider Russian Civil War. It saw the establishment and development of an independent Ukr ...

. In the

Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic The Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, abbreviated as the Ukrainian SSR, UkrSSR, and also known as Soviet Ukraine or just Ukraine, was one of the Republics of the Soviet Union, constituent republics of the Soviet Union from 1922 until 1991. ...

, Drahomanov was denounced as a liberal and a nationalist during the Stalinist period, but his ideas found a renewed interest following

de-Stalinization De-Stalinization () comprised a series of political reforms in the Soviet Union after Death and state funeral of Joseph Stalin, the death of long-time leader Joseph Stalin in 1953, and Khrushchev Thaw, the thaw brought about by ascension of Nik ...

and especially after the

independence of Ukraine The Act of Declaration of Independence of Ukraine was adopted by the Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian SSR (''Verkhovna Rada'') on 24 August 1991.Maxim Gorky Alexei Maximovich Peshkov (; – 18 June 1936), popularly known as Maxim Gorky (; ), was a Russian and Soviet writer and proponent of socialism. He was nominated five times for the Nobel Prize in Literature. Before his success as an aut ...

was renamed as the Kyiv Pedagogical Drahomanov Institute. In 1997, the institute was granted "National University" status, being subsequently designated National Pedagogical Drahomanov University.

References

Bibliography

* * * * ** ** **

External links