The Mutapa Empire – sometimes referred to as Mwenemutapa or Munhumutapa, (, ) – was an African empire in Zimbabwe, which expanded to what is now modern-day
Mozambique
Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique, is a country located in Southeast Africa bordered by the Indian Ocean to the east, Tanzania to the north, Malawi and Zambia to the northwest, Zimbabwe to the west, and Eswatini and South Afr ...
,
Botswana
Botswana, officially the Republic of Botswana, is a landlocked country in Southern Africa. Botswana is topographically flat, with approximately 70 percent of its territory part of the Kalahari Desert. It is bordered by South Africa to the sou ...
,
Malawi
Malawi, officially the Republic of Malawi, is a landlocked country in Southeastern Africa. It is bordered by Zambia to the west, Tanzania to the north and northeast, and Mozambique to the east, south, and southwest. Malawi spans over and ...
, and
Zambia
Zambia, officially the Republic of Zambia, is a landlocked country at the crossroads of Central Africa, Central, Southern Africa, Southern and East Africa. It is typically referred to being in South-Central Africa or Southern Africa. It is bor ...
. It was ruled by the Nembire or Mbire dynasty.


The
Portuguese term ''Monomotapa'' is a transliteration of the
Shona royal title ''Mwenemutapa'' derived from a combination of two words, ''Mwene'' meaning "Lord" and ''Mutapa'' meaning "conquered land". Over time the monarch's royal title was applied to the kingdom as a whole, and used to denote the kingdom's territory on maps from the period.
History
Origins
There are several Mutapa origin stories, the most widely accepted told by oral tradition is of the princes of
Great Zimbabwe
Great Zimbabwe was a city in the south-eastern hills of the modern country of Zimbabwe, near Masvingo. It was settled from 1000 AD, and served as the capital of the Kingdom of Great Zimbabwe from the 13th century. It is the largest stone struc ...
.
Shona oral tradition
Oral tradition, or oral lore, is a form of human communication in which knowledge, art, ideas and culture are received, preserved, and transmitted orally from one generation to another.Jan Vansina, Vansina, Jan: ''Oral Tradition as History'' (19 ...
attributes Great Zimbabwe's demise to a salt shortage, which may be a figurative way of speaking of land depletion for agriculturalists or of the depletion of critical resources for the community.
The first "Mutapa" was a warrior prince named
Nyatsimba Mutota from the
Kingdom of Zimbabwe who expanded the reach of the kingdom searching for new sources of salt in the north, near the
Zambezi
The Zambezi (also spelled Zambeze and Zambesi) is the fourth-longest river in Africa, the longest east-flowing river in Africa and the largest flowing into the Indian Ocean from Africa. Its drainage basin covers , slightly less than half of t ...
, with some traditions saying he was sent by his father, the ''
mambo
Mambo most often refers to:
*Mambo (music), a Cuban musical form
*Mambo (dance), a dance corresponding to mambo music
Mambo may also refer to:
Music
* Mambo section, a section in arrangements of some types of Afro-Caribbean music, particul ...
'' (king) of Great Zimbabwe.
Mutota is said to have found salt in the lands of the
Tavara,
and settled around the
Ruya-
Mazowe Basin, conquering and incorporating the pre-existing chiefdoms to control agricultural production and strategic resources. This placed the state at a key position in the gold and ivory trade.
Around 1440, Mutota began aggressive campaigns against the surrounding tribes, expanding the boundaries of the lands under his control to the west along the Zambezi River.
In the early 15th century
Angoche traders had opened a new route along the Zambezi via Mutapa and
Ingombe Ilede to reach the goldfields close to
Khami, precipitating the rise of the
Kingdom of Butua
The Kingdom of Butua or Butwa (–1683) was a Bakalanga (western Shona) kingdom located in what is now southwestern Zimbabwe. Butua was renowned as the source of gold for Arab and Portuguese traders. The first written record of the kingdom ca ...
. This bypassed Great Zimbabwe to the east, contributing to its decline.
It was believed that only Mutapa's most recent ancestors would follow them, with older ancestors staying at Great Zimbabwe and providing protection there. A Shona king's claim to land is through their ancestors, and this would have impacted the legitimacy of Mutapa's leaders.
Further expansion
Mutota's son and successor,
Nyanhewe Matope, moved the capital to
Mount Fura and extended this new kingdom into an empire encompassing most of the lands between Tavara and the
Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world's five oceanic divisions, covering or approximately 20% of the water area of Earth#Surface, Earth's surface. It is bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to the west and Australia (continent), ...
.
[Oliver, page 204] This empire had achieved uniting a number of different peoples in
Southern Africa
Southern Africa is the southernmost region of Africa. No definition is agreed upon, but some groupings include the United Nations geoscheme for Africa, United Nations geoscheme, the intergovernmental Southern African Development Community, and ...
by building strong, well-trained armies and encouraging states to join voluntarily, offering membership in the Great council of the Empire to any who joined without resistance.
Matope's armies overran the
Manyika
The Manyika people are a Shona sub-group that originated from the Manyika Dynasty. Manyika people speak several dialects which include ChiManyika (Northern Manyika), ChiBocha (Southern Manyika), ChiUngwe, ChiHera, Chijindwi and the Urban dial ...
and
Tonga
Tonga, officially the Kingdom of Tonga, is an island country in Polynesia, part of Oceania. The country has 171 islands, of which 45 are inhabited. Its total surface area is about , scattered over in the southern Pacific Ocean. accordin ...
as well as the coastal
Teve and
Madanda.
By the time the Portuguese arrived on the coast of Mozambique, the Mutapa Empire was the most powerful state in the region.
The empire had reached its full extent by 1480, a mere 50 years following its creation.
Changamire I and loss of the southern regions
There appear to have intermarriages between the Nembire dynasty of Mutapa and the Torwa dynasty of
Butua.
According to oral traditions, Changamire was likely a descendant of both dynasties, being the son of Matope or had married Matope's daughter (or both were true and he married his sister as was commonplace in the royal family).
He had been appointed governor (''amir'') of the southern portion of the Mutapa Empire (''Guruhuswa'').
Diogo de Alcáçova's report in 1506 indicates that Changamire I was a member of the Torwa dynasty who had served as a wealthy and influential governor of the ''Mwenemutapa'' (Mutapa king).
In 1490, Changamire I rebelled against the ''Mwenemutapa'' (his elder brother Nyahuma) and deposed him, reportedly with help from the Torwa. He ruled Mutapa for four years until he was killed by the rightful heir to the throne, reportedly his nephew. His son Changamire II continued the conflict,
ruling the southern portions which broke away from the Mutapa Empire.
Whether this breakaway state maintained independence or came back under the rule of the ''Mwenemutapa'' is unclear, as we don't hear of the Changamire dynasty again until the 17th century.
Portuguese contact
The Portuguese dominated much of southeast Africa's coast, laying waste to
Sofala and
Kilwa
Kilwa Kisiwani ('Kilwa Island') is an island, national historic site, and Hamlet (place), hamlet community located in the township of Kilwa Masoko, the district seat of Kilwa District in the Tanzanian region of Lindi Region, Lindi in southern Ta ...
, by 1515. Their main goal was to dominate the trade with India; however, they unwittingly became mere carriers for luxury goods between Mutapa's sub-kingdoms and India. Main commodity brokers included Zharare and mhere mhere. As the Portuguese settled along the coast, they made their way into the hinterland as ''sertanejos'' (backwoodsmen). These ''sertanejos'' lived alongside
Swahili traders and even took up service among Shona kings as interpreters and political advisors. One such ''sertanejo'', António Fernandes, managed to travel through almost all the Shona kingdoms, including Mutapa's metropolitan district, between 1512 and 1516.He mainly travelled with Dhafa Zharare,son of Chipere Zharare who wanted the son to learn how to trade.
The Portuguese finally entered into direct relations with the Mwenemutapa in the 1560s.
[Oliver, page 203] They recorded a wealth of information about the Mutapa Kingdom as well as its predecessor,
Great Zimbabwe
Great Zimbabwe was a city in the south-eastern hills of the modern country of Zimbabwe, near Masvingo. It was settled from 1000 AD, and served as the capital of the Kingdom of Great Zimbabwe from the 13th century. It is the largest stone struc ...
. According to Swahili traders whose accounts were recorded by the Portuguese historian
João de Barros
João de Barros (; 1496 – 20 October 1570), nicknamed the "Portuguese Livy", is one of the first great Portuguese historians, most famous for his (''Decades of Asia''), a history of the Portuguese in India, Asia, and southeast Africa.
Early y ...
, Great Zimbabwe was a medieval capital city built of stones of marvellous size without the use of mortar. And while the site was not within Mutapa's borders, the Mwenemutapa kept noblemen and some of his wives there.
By the 17th century, other Europeans would extensively describe Mutapa architecture through paintings.
Olfert Dapper revealed four grand gateways which led to several halls and chambers in the Mutapa palace. The ceilings of the rooms in the palace were gilt with golden plates alongside ivory
chandeliers which hung on silver chains and filled the halls with light.
In 1569, King
Sebastian of Portugal
Sebastian ( ; 20 January 1554 – 4 August 1578) was King of Portugal from 11 June 1557 to 4 August 1578 and the penultimate Portuguese monarch of the House of Aviz.
He was the son of João Manuel, Prince of Portugal, and his wife, Joanna of Aus ...
made a grant of arms to the Mwenemutapa. These were blazoned: Gules between two arrows Argent an African hoe barwise bladed Or handled Argent – The shield surmounted by a Crown Oriental. This was probably the first
grant of arms
A grant of arms or a governmental issuance of arms is an instrument issued by a lawful authority, such as an officer of arms or State Herald, which confers on a person and his or her descendants the right to bear a particular coat of arms or a ...
to a native of southern Africa; however it is unlikely that these arms were ever actually used by the Mwenemutapa.
The accidental crusade
In 1561, a Portuguese Jesuit missionary,
Gonçalo da Silveira managed to make his way into the Mwenemutapa's court and convert him to Christianity.
This did not go well with the Muslim merchants in the capital, and they persuaded the king to kill the Jesuit only a few days after his baptism. This was all the justification the Portuguese needed to penetrate the interior and take control of the gold mines and ivory routes. After a lengthy preparation, an
expedition of 1,000 men under
Francisco Barreto was launched in 1568. They managed to get as far as the upper
Zambezi
The Zambezi (also spelled Zambeze and Zambesi) is the fourth-longest river in Africa, the longest east-flowing river in Africa and the largest flowing into the Indian Ocean from Africa. Its drainage basin covers , slightly less than half of t ...
, but local disease decimated the force. The Portuguese returned to their base in 1572 and took their frustrations out on the Swahili traders, whom they massacred. They replaced them with Portuguese and their half-African progeny who became prazeiros (estate holders) of the lower Zambezi. Mutapa maintained a position of strength exacting a subsidy from each captain of
Portuguese Mozambique
Portuguese Mozambique () or Portuguese East Africa () were the common terms by which Mozambique was designated during the period in which it was a Portuguese Empire, Portuguese overseas province. Portuguese Mozambique originally constituted a str ...
that took the office. The Mwenemutapa also levied a duty of 50 percent on all trade goods imported.
[Oliver, page 208]
Decline and collapse

Mutapa proved invulnerable to attack and even economic manipulation due to the Mwenemutapa's strong control over gold production.
What posed the greatest threat was infighting among different factions which led to opposing sides calling on the Portuguese for military aid. However, the Portuguese proved to be happy with the downfall of the Mutapa state.
Portuguese control
In 1629 the Mwenemutapa attempted to throw out the Portuguese. He failed and in turn he himself was overthrown, leading to the Portuguese installation of
Mavura Mhande Felipe on the throne. Mutapa signed treaties making it a Portuguese vassal and ceding gold mines, but none of these concessions were ever put into effect.
Mutapa remained nominally independent, though practically a client state. All the while, Portugal increased control over much of southeast Africa with the beginnings of a colonial system. The Portuguese were now in control of the trade and the trade routes.
Loss of prestige

Another problem for Mutapa was that its tributaries such as Kiteve, Madanda and
Manyika
The Manyika people are a Shona sub-group that originated from the Manyika Dynasty. Manyika people speak several dialects which include ChiManyika (Northern Manyika), ChiBocha (Southern Manyika), ChiUngwe, ChiHera, Chijindwi and the Urban dial ...
ceased paying tribute. At the same time, a new kingdom under the
Rozvi dynasty near Barwe was on the rise. All of this was hastened by
Portugal retaining a presence on the coast and in the capital.
At least one part of the 1629 treaty that was acted on was the provision allowing Portuguese settlement within Mutapa. It also allowed the praezeros to establish fortified settlements across the kingdom. In 1663, the praezeros were able to depose Mwenemutapa
Siti Kazurukamusapa and put their own nominee,
Kamharapasu Mukombwe on the throne.
Butwa invasion
In the 17th century, a low ranking Mutapa prince broke away from the Empire, invading the neighboring Kingdom of Butua. The leader of this Dynasty became known as Changamire Dombo. A possible reason for the breakaway was Dombo's dissatisfaction with the levels of Portuguese interference in the Mwenemutapa Empire's governance.
By the late 17th century, Changamire Domborakonachingwango (or Dombo for short. Pronounced as Ɗömbö) was actively challenging Mutapa. In 1684 his forces encountered and decisively defeated those of Mwenemutapa Kamharapasu Mukombwe just south of Mutapa's metro district at the
Battle of Mahungwe. When Mukombwe died in 1692, a succession crisis erupted. The Portuguese backed one successor and Dombo another. In support of his candidate, Changamire Dombo razed the Portuguese fair-town of Dembarare next to the Mutapa capital and slaughtered the Portuguese traders and their entire following. From 1692 until 1694, Mwenemutapa Nyakambira ruled Mutapa independently. Nyakambira was later killed in battle with the Portuguese who then placed
Nyamaende Mhande on the throne as their puppet.
In 1695, Changamire Dombo overran the gold-producing Kingdom of Manyika and took his army east and destroyed the Portuguese fair-town of Masikwesi. This gave him complete control of all gold-producing territory from Butwa to Manyika, supplanting Mutapa as the premier Shona Kingdom in the region.
Shifting rulers
It appears neither the Rozwi nor the Portuguese could maintain control of the Mutapa state for very long, and it moved back and forth between the two throughout the 17th century. Far from a victim of conquest, the Mutapa rulers actually invited in foreign powers to bolster their rule. This included vassalage to
Portuguese East Africa
Portuguese Mozambique () or Portuguese East Africa () were the common terms by which Mozambique was designated during the period in which it was a Portuguese Empire, Portuguese overseas province. Portuguese Mozambique originally constituted a str ...
from 1629 to 1663 and vassalage to the
Rozwi Empire from 1663 until the Portuguese return in 1694. Portuguese control of Mutapa was maintained or at least represented by an armed garrison at the capital. In 1712, yet another coveter of the throne invited the Rozwi back to put him on the throne and kick out the Portuguese. This they did, and Mutapa again came under the control of the Rozwi Empire. The new Mwenemutapa
Samatambira Nyamhandu I become their vassal, while the outgoing king was forced to retreat to Chidama in what is now
Mozambique
Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique, is a country located in Southeast Africa bordered by the Indian Ocean to the east, Tanzania to the north, Malawi and Zambia to the northwest, Zimbabwe to the west, and Eswatini and South Afr ...
.
Independence and move from Zimbabwe
The Rozwi quickly lost interest in Mutapa, as they sought to consolidate their position in the south. Mutapa regained its independence around 1720. By this time, the Kingdom of Mutapa had lost nearly all of the Zimbabwe plateau to the
Rozwi Empire. In 1723, Nyamhandi moved his capital into the valley near the Portuguese trading settlement of
Tete
Tete may refer to:
* Tete, Mozambique, a city in Mozambique
*Tété (born 1975), a French musician
*Tetê (born 2000), a Brazilian footballer
*Tete Montoliu (1933–1997), Spanish jazz pianist
**''Tete!'', an album by Tete Montoliu
*Tete Province ...
, under
Mwenemutapa Nyatsusu. Upon his death in 1740, the young
Dehwe Mapunzagutu took power. He sought Portuguese support and invited them back to Mutapa along with their garrison of armed men, but Mutapa remained independent.
Collapse
The Mwenemutapa died in 1759, sparking yet another civil war for the throne. This one was more destructive than its predecessors and Mutapa never recovered. The "winners" ended up governing an even more reduced land from Chidima. They used the title ''Mambo a Chidima'' and ruled independently of Portugal until 1917 when
Mambo Chioko, the last king of the dynasty, was killed in battle against the Portuguese.
Religion
The Emperor Mutope had left the empire with a well-organised religion with a powerful shamanism. The religion of the Mutapa kingdom revolved around ritual consultation of spirits and of ancestors. Shrines were maintained within the capital by spirit mediums known as ''mhondoro''. The mhondoro also served as oral historians recording the names and deeds of past kings.
[Oliver, page 205]
Mutapa as Ophir
The empire had another indirect side effect on the history of southern Africa. Gold from the empire inspired in Europeans a belief that Mwenemutapa held the legendary mines of King
Solomon
Solomon (), also called Jedidiah, was the fourth monarch of the Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy), Kingdom of Israel and Judah, according to the Hebrew Bible. The successor of his father David, he is described as having been the penultimate ...
, referred to in the Bible as the biblical port of
Ophir
Ophir (; ) is a port or region mentioned in the Bible, famous for its wealth. Its existence is attested to by an inscribed pottery shard found at Tell Qasile (in modern-day Tel Aviv) in 1946, dating to the eighth century BC, which reads "''go ...
.
The belief that the mines were inside the Mwenemutapa kingdom in southern Africa was one of the factors that led to the
Portuguese exploration of the hinterland of Sofala in the 16th century, and this contributed to early development of Mozambique, as the legend was widely used among the less educated populace to recruit colonists. Some documents suggest that most of the early colonists dreamt of finding the legendary city of gold in southern Africa, a belief mirroring the early South American colonial search for
El Dorado
El Dorado () is a mythical city of gold supposedly located somewhere in South America. The king of this city was said to be so rich that he would cover himself from head to foot in gold dust – either daily or on certain ceremonial occasions � ...
and quite possibly inspired by it. Early trade in gold came to an end as the mines ran out, and the deterioration of the Mutapa state eliminated the financial and political support for further developing sources of gold.
Legacy
For several centuries, this trading empire enabled people across a large territory to live in peace and security under a stable government and succession of rulers. With primary records dating back to 1502, the empire is a "prime testing ground for theories … concerning economic, political and religious development" in
pre-colonial Africa. Beach comments that the Mutapa was one of only four Shona states that was not entirely "uprooted by new settlements of people" and the only one "close to Portuguese centers" thus providing important data on contact and relationships between this and other Shona states as well as with Europeans. The Mutapa Empire is an example of a working system of government in Africa and of a flourishing civilization, both of which are often assumed to have been absent before the coming of the Europeans.
See also
*
Great Zimbabwe
Great Zimbabwe was a city in the south-eastern hills of the modern country of Zimbabwe, near Masvingo. It was settled from 1000 AD, and served as the capital of the Kingdom of Great Zimbabwe from the 13th century. It is the largest stone struc ...
*
History of Zimbabwe
*
List of rulers of Mutapa
*
Nehanda Nyakasikana
Nehanda Charwe Nyakasikana also known as Mbuya Nehanda ( 1840–1898) was a ''svikiro'', or Mediumship, spirit medium of the Zezuru Shona people. She was a medium of Nehanda, a female Shona people, Shona mhondoro (a powerful and respected anc ...
References
Sources
*
*
*
*
* .
*D.N. Beach, Review: The Mutapa State by D.N. Beach. The Journal of African History. 17(2): 311-313.
Further reading
* Elkiss, T.H. ''The Quest for an African Eldorado: Sofala, Southern Zambezia, and the Portuguese, 1500–1865''. Waltham, MA: Crossroads Press, 1981.
{{DEFAULTSORT:Mutapa, Kingdom of
Former empires in Africa
Former monarchies of Africa
Pre-colonial history of Zimbabwe
History of Mozambique
States and territories established in the 15th century
1760 disestablishments in Africa
States and territories established in 1430
States and territories disestablished in 1760
15th-century establishments in Africa
Ophir
Great Zimbabwe
States and territories disestablished in 1888