Gaius Musonius Rufus (; ) was a Roman Stoic

philosopher Philosophy ('love of wisdom' in Ancient Greek) is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like existence, reason, knowledge, Value (ethics and social sciences), value, mind, and language. It is a rational an ...

of the 1st century AD. He taught philosophy in

Rome Rome (Italian language, Italian and , ) is the capital city and most populated (municipality) of Italy. It is also the administrative centre of the Lazio Regions of Italy, region and of the Metropolitan City of Rome. A special named with 2, ...

during the reign of

Nero Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( ; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68) was a Roman emperor and the final emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 until his ...

and so was sent into exile in 65 AD, returning to Rome only under

Galba Galba ( ; born Servius Sulpicius Galba; 24 December 3 BC – 15 January AD 69) was Roman emperor, ruling for 7 months from 8 June AD 68 to 15 January 69. He was the first emperor in the Year of the Four Emperors and assumed the throne follow ...

. He was allowed to stay in Rome when

Vespasian Vespasian (; ; 17 November AD 9 – 23 June 79) was Roman emperor from 69 to 79. The last emperor to reign in the Year of the Four Emperors, he founded the Flavian dynasty, which ruled the Empire for 27 years. His fiscal reforms and consolida ...

banished all other philosophers from the city in 71 AD although he was eventually banished anyway, returning only after Vespasian's death. A collection of extracts from his lectures still survives. He is also remembered for being the teacher of

Epictetus Epictetus (, ; , ''Epíktētos''; 50 135 AD) was a Greek Stoic philosopher. He was born into slavery at Hierapolis, Phrygia (present-day Pamukkale, in western Turkey) and lived in Rome until his banishment, when he went to Nicopolis in ...

and Dio Chrysostom.

Life

The son of a Roman eques of the name of Capito, Musonius Rufus was born in

Volsinii Volsinii or Vulsinii (Etruscan language, Etruscan: Velzna or Velusna; Ancient Greek, Greek: Ouolsinioi, ; ), is the name of two ancient cities of Etruria, one situated on the shore of Lacus Volsiniensis (modern Lago di Bolsena), and the other on ...

Etruria Etruria ( ) was a region of Central Italy delimited by the rivers Arno and Tiber, an area that covered what is now most of Tuscany, northern Lazio, and north-western Umbria. It was inhabited by the Etruscans, an ancient civilization that f ...

about 20–30 AD. By the time of

, he was already famous in

, where he taught Stoic philosophy. He was associated with the

Stoic Opposition The Stoic Opposition is the name given to a group of Stoic philosophers who actively opposed the autocratic rule of certain emperors in the 1st-century, particularly Nero and Domitian. Most prominent among them was Thrasea Paetus, an influential ...

against the perceived tyranny of Nero. He followed

Rubellius Plautus Rubellius Plautus (33–62 AD) was a Roman noble and a political rival of Emperor Nero. Through his mother Julia, he was a relative of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. He was the grandson of Drusus (only son of Tiberius Caesar), and the great-grandson ...

into exile when Plautus was banished by Nero (60 AD). He returned to Rome after Plautus' death (62 AD), but as a consequence of his practising and teaching

Stoicism Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy that flourished in ancient Greece and Rome. The Stoics believed that the universe operated according to reason, ''i.e.'' by a God which is immersed in nature itself. Of all the schools of ancient ...

, he became an object of suspicion and dislike at Nero's court, and was accordingly banished to the island of Gyaros (65 AD) on a trumped-up charge of participation in the

Pisonian conspiracy The conspiracy of Gaius Calpurnius Piso in 65 CE was a major turning point in the reign of the Roman emperor Nero (reign 54–68). The plot reflected the growing discontent among the ruling class of the Roman state with Nero's increasingly d ...

. While Gyaros was "harsh and devoid of human culture", Musonius was able to survive and form a small community of philosophers. He specifically refers to his time in exile in his ninth discourse, pointing out its advantages for a practitioner of Stoicism. He returned under

(68 AD). When

Marcus Antonius Primus Marcus Antonius Primus (born between 20 AD and 35 AD – died after 81 AD) was a senator and general of the Roman Empire. Biography Early life Primus was born at Tolosa (Toulouse) in Gaul. Possibly he was descended from Gauls who had been enfranc ...

, the general of

, was marching upon

(69 AD), he joined the ambassadors that were sent by

Vitellius Aulus Vitellius ( ; ; 24 September 1520 December 69) was Roman emperor for eight months, from 19 April to 20 December AD 69. Vitellius became emperor following the quick succession of the previous emperors Galba and Otho, in a year of civil wa ...

to the victorious general, and going among the soldiers of the latter, preached about the blessings of peace and the dangers of war, but was soon made to stop. When the party of Vitellius gained the upper hand, Musonius was able to accuse, and obtain the conviction of, Publius Egnatius Celer, the Stoic philosopher who had condemned Barea Soranus. It was perhaps about this time that Musonius taught

, his most famous student. So highly was Musonius esteemed in Rome that Vespasian allowed him to remain in Rome when the other philosophers were banished from the city (71 AD), but eventually he was exiled anyway (perhaps around 75 AD), only returning after Vespasian's death (79 AD). As to his death, we know only that he was dead by 101 AD, when Pliny speaks of his son-in-law Artemidorus.

Writings

It is unknown whether Musonius wrote anything for publication. His philosophical opinions were collected by two of his students. One collection of ''Discourses'', by a certain Lucius, form the basis of the 21 lengthy extracts preserved by

Stobaeus Joannes Stobaeus (; ; 5th-century AD), from Stobi in Macedonia (Roman province), Macedonia, was the compiler of a valuable series of extracts from Greek authors. The work was originally divided into two volumes containing two books each. The tw ...

. A second collection was compiled by one Pollio; it has been lost, but some fragments survive in quotations by later writers. The titles of the 21 discourses (Cora Lutz edition) are as follows: # That There is No Need of Giving Many Proofs for One Problem # That Man is Born with an Inclination Toward Virtue # That Women Too Should Study Philosophy # Should Daughters Receive the Same Education as Sons? # Which is more Effective, Theory or Practice? # On Training # That One Should Disdain Hardships # That Kings Also Should Study Philosophy # That Exile is not an Evil # Will the Philosopher Prosecute Anyone for Personal Injury? # What means of Livelihood is Appropriate for a Philosopher? # On Sexual Indulgence # What is the Chief End of Marriage # Is Marriage a Handicap for the Pursuit of Philosophy? # Should Every Child that is Born be Raised? # Must One Obey One's Parents under all Circumstances? # What is the Best

Viaticum Viaticum is a term used – especially in the Catholic Church – for the Eucharist (also called Holy Communion), administered, with or without Anointing of the Sick (also called Extreme Unction), to a person who is dying; viaticum is thus a par ...

for Old Age? # On Food # On Clothing and Shelter # On Furnishings # On Cutting the Hair

Philosophy

His philosophy, which is in many respects identical with that of his pupil,

, is marked by its strong practical tendency. The philosophy he would have everyone cultivate is not a mere matter of words, of instruction, or of the school; but one that everyone by their own reflection and practice may pursue for himself.Heinrich Ritter, ''The History of Ancient Philosophy'', Alexander James William Morrison, tr. (London, 1846), vol. IV, p. 190. Still, he considers it becoming in a philosopher to wear the philosopher's robe, to allow the hair to grow, and to retire from general society. At the same time he is convinced of the power of philosophy over the minds of people; by it he hopes to heal all the corruption of the human mind.Ritter, p. 191. His philosophy consists entirely of the rules for the conduct of life; all knowledge ought to be serviceable to action. He does not reject

logic Logic is the study of correct reasoning. It includes both formal and informal logic. Formal logic is the study of deductively valid inferences or logical truths. It examines how conclusions follow from premises based on the structure o ...

: he regards it as a proof of a weak mind to decline to examine the

fallacy A fallacy is the use of invalid or otherwise faulty reasoning in the construction of an argument that may appear to be well-reasoned if unnoticed. The term was introduced in the Western intellectual tradition by the Aristotelian '' De Sophisti ...

which perplexes it; yet at the same time he expresses his disgust at the multitude of dogmas which fed the vanity of the

sophists A sophist () was a teacher in ancient Greece in the fifth and fourth centuries BCE. Sophists specialized in one or more subject areas, such as philosophy, rhetoric, music, athletics and mathematics. They taught ''arete'', "virtue" or "excellen ...

.Ritter, p. 192. He gives only a little attention to the physical doctrines of the Stoics; he asserts that the

gods A deity or god is a supernatural being considered to be sacred and worthy of worship due to having authority over some aspect of the universe and/or life. The ''Oxford Dictionary of English'' defines ''deity'' as a God (male deity), god or god ...

know all things without need of reasoning, since to them nothing can be obscure or unknown. The human

soul The soul is the purported Mind–body dualism, immaterial aspect or essence of a Outline of life forms, living being. It is typically believed to be Immortality, immortal and to exist apart from the material world. The three main theories that ...

he considers to be akin to the gods, and agrees with other Stoics that the soul is material, which after being corrupted by bodily influence, may be again purified and cleansed.Ritter, p. 193. He strongly asserts the liberty of the rational soul (). Musonius pays much more attention to

ethics Ethics is the philosophy, philosophical study of Morality, moral phenomena. Also called moral philosophy, it investigates Normativity, normative questions about what people ought to do or which behavior is morally right. Its main branches inclu ...

than logic or physics; for he holds that philosophy is nothing else than an investigation and practice of what is becoming and obligatory; and philosophy, he says, is merely the pursuit of a virtuous life. He requires that all people, both men and women, should cultivate philosophy as the only sure road to virtue. He agrees that it is easy to follow one's own nature, and the only great impediment which he can find to a truly moral life is the prejudices with which the

mind The mind is that which thinks, feels, perceives, imagines, remembers, and wills. It covers the totality of mental phenomena, including both conscious processes, through which an individual is aware of external and internal circumstances ...

is filled from

childhood A child () is a human being between the stages of childbirth, birth and puberty, or between the Development of the human body, developmental period of infancy and puberty. The term may also refer to an unborn human being. In English-speaking ...

, and the evil habits confirmed by practices.Ritter, p. 194. Thus he regards philosophy as the mental art of healing, and lays great stress on the practice of virtue, preferring practice to precept. He distinguishes two kinds of practice: the exercise of the mind in reflection and the adoption of good rules in life, and the endurance of bodily pains which affect both the soul and the body.Ritter, p. 195. A life lived according to nature consists in social, friendly sentiments and temper, and in contentment with what will simply alleviate the primary needs of nature. He combats all

selfishness Selfishness is being concerned excessively or exclusively for oneself or one's own advantage, pleasure, or welfare, regardless of others. Selfishness is the opposite of ''altruism'' or selflessness, and has also been contrasted (as by C. S. Lewis ...

, and regards

marriage Marriage, also called matrimony or wedlock, is a culturally and often legally recognised union between people called spouses. It establishes rights and obligations between them, as well as between them and their children (if any), and b ...

not merely as becoming and natural, but as the principle of the family and state, and the preservation of the whole human race. He zealously protests against the exposure of children as an unnatural custom, and at every opportunity recommends the practice of benevolence. His precepts for the simple life are carefully detailed, and he gives precise regulations for diet, the care of the body,

clothing Clothing (also known as clothes, garments, dress, apparel, or attire) is any item worn on a human human body, body. Typically, clothing is made of fabrics or textiles, but over time it has included garments made from animal skin and other thin s ...

, and even

furniture Furniture refers to objects intended to support various human activities such as seating (e.g., Stool (seat), stools, chairs, and sofas), eating (table (furniture), tables), storing items, working, and sleeping (e.g., beds and hammocks). Furnitur ...

. Thus he recommends that the hair should be allowed to grow long and not cut too close; and he honours the

beard A beard is the hair that grows on the jaw, chin, upper lip, lower lip, cheeks, and neck of humans and some non-human animals. In humans, beards are most commonly seen on pubescent or adult males, though women have been observed with beards ...

on the basis that the hair was provided by nature for covering the body. He forbids meat, and prefers food which is furnished and offered by nature to that which requires the art of cooking. Musonius argued because men's and women's capacity to understand virtue is the same, both should be trained in philosophy.Diotima
''Philosophers on the Role of Women''

Notes

External links

* Diotima
''Philosophers on the Role of Women''

Musonius Rufus
entry in the

Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy The ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (''IEP'') is a scholarly online encyclopedia with around 900 articles about philosophy, philosophers, and related topics. The IEP publishes only peer review, peer-reviewed and blind-refereed original p ...

Online edition of Lectures and Fragments
{{DEFAULTSORT:Musonius Rufus, Gaius 1st-century births 1st-century philosophers 1st-century Romans Ethicists Scholars of feminist philosophy Logicians Male feminists Members of the Pisonian conspiracy Philosophers of sexuality Philosophers of Roman Italy Roman-era Stoic philosophers Virtue ethicists Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown Ancient Roman delatores

Life

Writings

Philosophy

Notes

Further reading

Translations

Studies

External links