Mulenge
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Mulenge is a village encircled by hills in the Kigoma ''groupement'' (
grouping Grouping generally refers to the creation of one or more groups, or to the groups themselves. More specifically, grouping may refer to: * Shot grouping in shooting sports and other uses of firearms * the use of symbols of grouping in mathemati ...
), within
Bafuliiru Chiefdom The Bafuliiru Chiefdom (French language, French: ''Chefferie de Bafuliiru''), also known as the Bafulero Chiefdom (''Chefferie de Bafulero''), is a Chiefdoms and sectors of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, chiefdom located in Uvira Territory ...
, located in the
Uvira Territory Uvira Territory is a Territories of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, territory located in South Kivu, South Kivu Province in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Encompassing an area of roughly 3,146 kilometers and with ...
,
South Kivu South Kivu (; ) is one of Provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 26 provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Its capital city, capital is Bukavu. Located within the East African Rift's western branch Albertine Rift, it is ...
, in the eastern
Democratic Republic of the Congo The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), also known as the DR Congo, Congo-Kinshasa, or simply the Congo (the last ambiguously also referring to the neighbouring Republic of the Congo), is a country in Central Africa. By land area, it is t ...
. Perched on the
Itombwe massif The Itombwe Mountains (or Itombwe Massif, Plateau) are a range of mountains in the South Kivu province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). They run along the west shore of the northern part of Lake Tanganyika. They contain a vast area ...
's high plateaus, it overlooks
Uvira Uvira is a city strategically located in the South Kivu Province of the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Covering approximately 16 square kilometers and with an estimated population of 726,000 as of 2024, it borders Baful ...
. Historically, the area has been inhabited by remnants of Bantu communities like the Fuliiru people whom are the original inhabitants of region, and some
Nyindu Nyindu is an endangered Bantu language The Bantu languages (English: , Proto-Bantu language, Proto-Bantu: *bantʊ̀), or Ntu languages are a language family of about 600 languages of Central Africa, Central, Southern Africa, Southern, East ...
communities. The region's economy is centered around
agriculture Agriculture encompasses crop and livestock production, aquaculture, and forestry for food and non-food products. Agriculture was a key factor in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created ...
, family
livestock breeding Animal husbandry is the branch of agriculture concerned with animals that are raised for meat, fibre, milk, or other products. It includes day-to-day care, management, production, nutrition, selective breeding, and the raising of livestock. ...
, and
fishing Fishing is the activity of trying to catch fish. Fish are often caught as wildlife from the natural environment (Freshwater ecosystem, freshwater or Marine ecosystem, marine), but may also be caught from Fish stocking, stocked Body of water, ...
.


Etymology

The name "''Mulenge''" originates from the
Fuliiru language Fuliiru, or Kifuliiru, is a Great Lakes Bantu language spoken by the Fuliiru people (''Bafuliiru''), also known as the ''Fuliru'', who live north and west of the town of Uvira in Uvira Territory, South Kivu Province in the far eastern part of t ...
, spoken by the Fuliiru people, who migrated to
Uvira Territory Uvira Territory is a Territories of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, territory located in South Kivu, South Kivu Province in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Encompassing an area of roughly 3,146 kilometers and with ...
from Lwindi Chiefdom—a region near the
Ulindi River The Ulindi River () is a tributary of the Lualaba River in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). There is a proposal to build a hydroelectric power plant on the river to power a gold mining project. Location The river rises in the east of ...
in the rugged hinterlands of
Mwenga Territory Mwenga is a territory in the province of South Kivu in the Democratic Republic of Congo The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), also known as the DR Congo, Congo-Kinshasa, or simply the Congo (the last ambiguously also referring to the ...
—around the seventeenth century. "''Mulenge''" is believed to derive from a Fuliiru word for the
shinbone The tibia (; : tibiae or tibias), also known as the shinbone or shankbone, is the larger, stronger, and anterior (frontal) of the two bones in the leg below the knee in vertebrates (the other being the fibula, behind and to the outside of the t ...
.


History

Mulenge has historically been inhabited by the Fuliiru people, who migrated from Lwindi (now Luindi Chiefdom) towards the present-day
Uvira Uvira is a city strategically located in the South Kivu Province of the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Covering approximately 16 square kilometers and with an estimated population of 726,000 as of 2024, it borders Baful ...
, settling in the mountainous terrain. Congolese researcher Shimbi Kamba Katchelewa of the
University of Montreal A university () is an institution of tertiary education and research which awards academic degrees in several academic disciplines. ''University'' is derived from the Latin phrase , which roughly means "community of teachers and scholars". Univ ...
notes that Mulenge, along with
Luvungi Luvungi, also known as Itara-Luvungi, is one of the ''groupements'' (administrative groupings) within the Bafuliiru Chiefdom in the Uvira Territory of South Kivu Province in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. Located on the Ruzizi Pl ...
and
Lemera Lemera is one of the ''groupements'' (Subdivisions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, groupings) within the Bafuliiru Chiefdom, serving as the chief town of the chiefdom. Positioned in the northwestern part of Uvira Territory, Lemera spans a ...
, were key sites where the first Bafuliiru from Lwindi settled between the 10th and 14th centuries, forming the basis for the eventual establishment of a "kingdom" under a Hamba clan ruler. The Bahamba traditionally held authority in the area, with Lemera as their capital. Lemera itself was named after ''Mulemera'', the father of Kahamba, the dynasty's founder. Historian Bishikwabo Chubaka indicate that the Bahamba clan's control extended across the northwestern
Ruzizi Plain The Ruzizi Plain (French language, French: ''Plaine de la Ruzizi'') is a valley situated between the Mitumba Mountains, Mitumba mountain chain and the Ruzizi River. It serves as a natural border, separating the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DR ...
, from Uvira to Luvungi.


Interethnic and regional conflicts

By the 1920s, Mulenge began attracting
Tutsi The Tutsi ( ), also called Watusi, Watutsi or Abatutsi (), are an ethnic group of the African Great Lakes region. They are a Bantu languages, Bantu-speaking ethnic group and the second largest of three main ethnic groups in Rwanda and Burundi ( ...
pastoralists searching for
grazing In agriculture, grazing is a method of animal husbandry whereby domestic livestock are allowed outdoors to free range (roam around) and consume wild vegetations in order to feed conversion ratio, convert the otherwise indigestible (by human diges ...
land in the Itombwe Highlands. Scholars have characterized these migrants as foreign groups.
René Lemarchand René Lemarchand (born 1932) is a French- American political scientist who is known for his research on ethnic conflict and genocide in Rwanda, Burundi and Darfur. Publishing in both English and French, he is particularly known for his work on t ...
described them as "renegades from Rwanda", while Daniel P. Biebuyck stated that they migrated "from Rwanda via the territory of Uvira". In ''Mayhem in the Mountains: How Violent Conflict on the Hauts Plateaux of South Kivu Escalated'', Judith Verweijen, Juvénal Twaibu, Moïse Ribakare, Paul Bulambo, and Freddy Mwambi Kasongo noted that these groups moved to present-day
Uvira Territory Uvira Territory is a Territories of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, territory located in South Kivu, South Kivu Province in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Encompassing an area of roughly 3,146 kilometers and with ...
from what is now
Rwanda Rwanda, officially the Republic of Rwanda, is a landlocked country in the Great Rift Valley of East Africa, where the African Great Lakes region and Southeast Africa converge. Located a few degrees south of the Equator, Rwanda is bordered by ...
, as well as from present-day
Burundi Burundi, officially the Republic of Burundi, is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is located in the Great Rift Valley at the junction between the African Great Lakes region and Southeast Africa, with a population of over 14 million peop ...
. Alfred Moeller de Laddersous, a colonial administrator known for his extensive studies on
Bantu Bantu may refer to: *Bantu languages, constitute the largest sub-branch of the Niger–Congo languages *Bantu peoples, over 400 peoples of Africa speaking a Bantu language * Bantu knots, a type of African hairstyle *Black Association for National ...
communities in eastern
Belgian Congo The Belgian Congo (, ; ) was a Belgian colonial empire, Belgian colony in Central Africa from 1908 until independence in 1960 and became the Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). The former colony adopted its present name, the Democratic Repu ...
, classified the Tutsi of eastern Congo as " Hamite invaders" and asserted that the
Banyarwanda The Banyarwanda (, plural; , singular) are a Bantu peoples, Bantu Ethnolinguistic group, ethnolinguistic supraethnicity native to the northern African Great Lakes region, primarily the modern countries of Rwanda and Burundi. The Banyarwanda ar ...
, as a broader ethnolinguistic group, were not the region's original inhabitants. He also observed that the Barundi of Uvira Territory were of Bahutu origin, having settled in the
Ruzizi Plain The Ruzizi Plain (French language, French: ''Plaine de la Ruzizi'') is a valley situated between the Mitumba Mountains, Mitumba mountain chain and the Ruzizi River. It serves as a natural border, separating the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DR ...
between
Luvungi Luvungi, also known as Itara-Luvungi, is one of the ''groupements'' (administrative groupings) within the Bafuliiru Chiefdom in the Uvira Territory of South Kivu Province in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. Located on the Ruzizi Pl ...
and Kiliba before expanding northward between Luvungi and
Kamanyola Kamanyola is one of the ''groupements'' (Chiefdoms and sectors of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, groupings) within the Ngweshe Chiefdom of the Walungu Territory. It is located in the Ruzizi Plain in the South Kivu, South Kivu Province of ...
. Regarding the
Tutsi The Tutsi ( ), also called Watusi, Watutsi or Abatutsi (), are an ethnic group of the African Great Lakes region. They are a Bantu languages, Bantu-speaking ethnic group and the second largest of three main ethnic groups in Rwanda and Burundi ( ...
pastoralists, the Fuliiru
mwami ''Mwami'' () is an honorific title common in parts of Central and East Africa. The title means ''chief'' or ''tribal chief'' in several Bantu languages. It was historically used by kings in several African nations, and is still used for traditi ...
, Nyamugira Mukogabwe II, granted them grazing land in exchange for livestock tributes. These pastoralists established settlements between Mulenge and the upper Sange River, subsequently ceasing their previous tributary obligations to the
Rwandan monarchy The Kingdom of Rwanda (also known as the Nyiginya Kingdom or Nyginya Dynasty) was a Bantu kingdom in modern-day Rwanda, which grew to be ruled by a Tutsi monarchy. It was one of the most centralized kingdoms in Central and East Africa. It was ...
. Mulenge became the immigrants' "quasi-capital, while the migrants began to be referred to as '' Banya-Mulenge''". Tensions arose by 1924 when Mwami Mukogabwe's increasing demands resulted in the depletion of Tutsi cattle herds, prompting many Banyamulenge to migrate southward to Itombwe in search of isolation and better grazing land. Paradoxically, this movement deepened their reliance on Fuliiru farmers for food, as cattle remained an essential part of Fuliiru
bridewealth Bride price, bride-dowry, bride-wealth, bride service or bride token, is money, property, or other form of wealth paid by a groom or his family to the woman or the family of the woman he will be married to or is just about to marry. Bride dowry ...
. The Fuliiru recall experiencing systemic marginalization in 1927, which fueled long-standing resentment toward the newcomers. After Mukogabwe's death in 1930, tensions persisted as the Rwandophone community sought colonial intervention to facilitate their reintegration into Mulenge. Belgian authorities, sympathetic to their return, assisted in their resettlement. On 25 February 1938, Mulenge was formally incorporated into the administrative framework of
Uvira Territory Uvira Territory is a Territories of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, territory located in South Kivu, South Kivu Province in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Encompassing an area of roughly 3,146 kilometers and with ...
under Ordinance-Law No. 21/91. It was designated as an administrative post alongside Makobola and
Luvungi Luvungi, also known as Itara-Luvungi, is one of the ''groupements'' (administrative groupings) within the Bafuliiru Chiefdom in the Uvira Territory of South Kivu Province in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. Located on the Ruzizi Pl ...
within
Bafuliiru Chiefdom The Bafuliiru Chiefdom (French language, French: ''Chefferie de Bafuliiru''), also known as the Bafulero Chiefdom (''Chefferie de Bafulero''), is a Chiefdoms and sectors of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, chiefdom located in Uvira Territory ...
. While Banyamulenge were a culturally and linguistically distinct community, their eponym "never appears in colonial records", nor were they granted a chiefdom (''collectivité''), which left them politically disadvantaged in a system where ethnic administrative divisions shaped governance. During this colonial era, Belgian settlers built a police station in the village, and directly in front of it lay a football field, which served multiple purposes—a site for public whippings, and a marketplace for trading goods between villagers and settlers. During the 1963–65 Simba Rebellion, which erupted across eastern Congo due to widespread discontent over post-independence governance,
Banyamulenge The Banyamulenge are a community that lives mainly in South Kivu Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo, with roots from mainly Rwanda. The Banyamulenge are culturally and socially related to the Banyarwanda Tutsi found in Rwanda, with mos ...
suffered significant losses of their cattle. The rebellion, particularly in South Kivu, exposed ethnic divisions, as insurgents—drawn largely from the Bafuliiru,
Bavira The Vira people or Bavira (in the plural) are one of the most numerous ethnic groups in the Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. These people are located in the region of Uvira in the East of the country, on the northeast coast of Lake Tangany ...
, and Babembe communities—targeted wealthy individuals, including those of Rwandan and Burundian descent. Amid increasing competition for land, the Bafuliiru, asserting their status as indigenous inhabitants, strongly opposed the continued presence of Rwandophone immigrants. The widespread loss of livestock forced some Banyamulenge to abandon cattle herding in favor of agricultural labor. By the early 1970s, economic relations between the Banyamulenge and the Fuliiru deteriorated. The Fuliiru, realizing they could obtain more cattle through market transactions rather than traditional exchanges, became less willing to supply food to the Banyamulenge. This shift further strained relations, as both communities felt economically disadvantaged by the other. Resentment over the events of 1964, particularly the loss of Banyamulenge herds, led them to side with President
Mobutu Sese Seko Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga ( ; born Joseph-Désiré Mobutu; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), often shortened to Mobutu Sese Seko or Mobutu and also known by his initials MSS, was a Congolese politician and military officer ...
's national army when it suppressed the rebellion in 1966. Since around 1976, some Tutsi immigrants began identifying as ''Banya-Mulenge'', a designation that the Bafuliiru viewed as an attempt to obscure their Rwandan origins and stake a territorial claim. This longstanding dispute resurfaced during the
First Congo War The First Congo War, also known as Africa's First World War, was a Civil war, civil and international military conflict that lasted from 24 October 1996 to 16 May 1997, primarily taking place in Zaire (which was renamed the Democratic Republi ...
, when a substantial number of Banyamulenge fighters joined the
Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo The Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo-Zaire (), also known by the French acronym AFDL, was a coalition of Rwandan, Ugandan, Burundian, and Congolese dissidents, disgruntled minority groups, and nations that toppled Mobut ...
(AFDL), participating in extrajudicial killings and acts of sexual violence against other ethnic communities. In October 1998, at the onset of the
Second Congo War The Second Congo War, also known as Africa's World War or the Great War of Africa, was a major conflict that began on 2 August 1998, in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, just over a year after the First Congo War. The war initially erupted ...
, the AFDL, with support from Banyamulenge, carried out numerous atrocities against civilians in Uvira. Many lost their lives to AFDL's violence, including the former Mulenge post chief, Ladislas Matalambu, who was killed on 1 October 1998, at 7:30 p.m., and Alexis Deyidedi, the former administrative secretary of the Bafuliiru Chiefdom, who was assassinated on 2 October 1998, at 11 p.m. Homes and businesses were looted, set ablaze, and destroyed.


Ongoing security problems

On 10 June 2004, up to 3,500 Congolese, mostly Bafuliiru and Babembe, fled to
Burundi Burundi, officially the Republic of Burundi, is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is located in the Great Rift Valley at the junction between the African Great Lakes region and Southeast Africa, with a population of over 14 million peop ...
, fleeing
ethnic persecution An ethnic conflict is a conflict between two or more ethnic groups. While the source of the conflict may be political, social, economic or religious, the individuals in conflict must expressly fight for their ethnic group's position within so ...
. On 16 January 2019, clashes erupted between Burundian rebel factions, including FOREBU,
RED-Tabara Resistance for Rule of Law in Burundi (French language, French: ''Résistance pour un État de Droit au Burundi'', Abbreviation: RED-Tabara) is a Burundian tutsi rebel militia that was formed in 2015 in the wake of the Burundian unrest (2015–2018 ...
, and the FNL (National Forces of Liberation), and Burundian militias. The conflict, which originated in Kabere, 20 kilometers west of Sange, spilled over into adjacent localities, including Mubere and Mulenge, resulting in at least 17 fatalities. By 22 January 2019, the coalition comprising RED-Tabara, FNL, and
Mai-Mai The term Mai-Mai or Mayi-Mayi refers to any kind of community-based militia group active in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) that is formed to defend local communities and territory against other armed groups. Most were formed to resis ...
Kihebe, commanded by Kihebe Ngabunga, was expelled from Kifuni village, where they had sought refuge on 20 January following their defeat in Mulenge at the hands of Burundian Imbonerakure militia, bolstered by Congolese Mai-Mai contingents. This coalition regained control of territories spanning Kabere, Mubere, and Mulenge in the middle plateaus of the Kigoma ''groupement''. The skirmishes culminated in the deaths of five people, including four rebels and one Mai-Mai combatant, alongside injuries sustained by militia members. These hostilities triggered further displacement, with uprooted populations seeking shelter in school facilities and among host families, where they were deprived of fundamental necessities. On 31 January 2019, civil society representatives and elders from the
Bavira The Vira people or Bavira (in the plural) are one of the most numerous ethnic groups in the Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. These people are located in the region of Uvira in the East of the country, on the northeast coast of Lake Tangany ...
, Banyamulenge, Bafuliiru, Banyindu, and
Babembe The Bembe people (Babembe in the plural) are an ethnic group based in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and western Kigoma Region of Tanzania. They live mainly in the territory of Fizi in South Kivu. The Bembe are also in the province ...
communities appealed to the
United Nations Security Council The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations (UN) and is charged with ensuring international peace and security, recommending the admission of new UN members to the General Assembly, an ...
to address the proliferation of Burundian and Rwandan armed groups in the DRC. By early February, the Burundian military commenced a phased withdrawal, dismantling RED-Tabara rebel strongholds. However, the
Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo Armed (May, 1941–1964) was an American Thoroughbred gelding race horse who was the American Horse of the Year in 1947 and Champion Older Male Horse in both 1946 and 1947. He was inducted into the National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame ...
(FARDC), deployed to secure the region, established unauthorized checkpoints in former rebel-occupied zones, where reports of harassment and extortion on market days emerged. On 21 February 2019, Kihebe Ngabunga surrendered to FARDC forces, accompanied by a cohort of approximately ten combatants, and relinquished two military-grade firearms. On 11 August 2019, the FARDC's 123rd Special Commando Battalion replaced the 3,304th Regiment in Lubarika, currently stationed in Nyamutiri (mid-plateaus) and Mulenge.


Climate

In Mulenge, the wet season is hot, humid, and overcast and the dry season is warm and partly cloudy. Over the course of the year, the temperature typically varies from 62 °F to 86 °F and is rarely below 59 °F or above 90 °F.


References

{{Reflist Populated places in South Kivu