Muhammad Ibn Al-Zayyat
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Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Malik, better known as Ibn al-Zayyāt (), was a wealthy merchant who became a court official and served as
vizier A vizier (; ; ) is a high-ranking political advisor or Minister (government), minister in the Near East. The Abbasids, Abbasid caliphs gave the title ''wazir'' to a minister formerly called ''katib'' (secretary), who was at first merely a help ...
of the
Abbasid The Abbasid Caliphate or Abbasid Empire (; ) was the third caliphate to succeed the prophets and messengers in Islam, Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (566–653 C ...
caliphs
al-Mu'tasim Abū Isḥāq Muḥammad ibn Hārūn al-Rashīd (; October 796 – 5 January 842), better known by his laqab, regnal name al-Muʿtaṣim biʾllāh (, ), was the eighth Abbasid Caliphate, Abbasid caliph, ruling from 833 until his death in 842. ...
,
al-Wathiq Abū Jaʿfar Hārūn ibn Muḥammad al-Wathiq bi'Llah (; 18 April 81210 August 847), commonly known by his regnal name al-Wathiq bi'Llah (), was an Abbasid caliph who reigned from 842 until his death in 847. Al-Wathiq is described in the so ...
, and
al-Mutawakkil Ja'far ibn al-Mu'tasim, Muḥammad ibn Harun al-Rashid, Hārūn al-Mutawakkil ʿalā Allāh (); March 82211 December 861, commonly known by his laqab, regnal name al-Mutawwakil ala Allah (), was the tenth Abbasid Caliphate, Abbasid caliph, rul ...
, from 836 until his downfall and death by torture in 847.


Life

Muhammad ibn al-Zayyat belonged to a wealthy family of merchants. The family was probably
Persian Persian may refer to: * People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language ** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples ** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...
. His father, Abd al-Malik, had made a fortune as an oil trader (whence his sobriquet ''al-Zayyāt'') in
Baghdad Baghdad ( or ; , ) is the capital and List of largest cities of Iraq, largest city of Iraq, located along the Tigris in the central part of the country. With a population exceeding 7 million, it ranks among the List of largest cities in the A ...
at the time of
al-Ma'mun Abū al-ʿAbbās Abd Allāh ibn Hārūn al-Maʾmūn (; 14 September 786 – 9 August 833), better known by his regnal name al-Ma'mun (), was the seventh Abbasid caliph, who reigned from 813 until his death in 833. His leadership was marked by t ...
(r. 813–833), and became involved in the lucrative government contracts for tents, ceremonial
parasols An umbrella or parasol is a folding canopy (building), canopy supported by wooden or metal ribs that is mounted on a wooden, metal, or plastic pole. It is usually designed to protect a person against rain. The term ''umbrella'' is traditionall ...
(''al-mushammas''), and riding equipment. Muhammad succeeded his father in these activities. By the end of al-Mamun's reign, Ibn al-Zayyat had become secretary in the caliphal chancellery.


Career under al-Mu'tasim and al-Wathiq

According to
al-Tabari Abū Jaʿfar Muḥammad ibn Jarīr ibn Yazīd al-Ṭabarī (; 839–923 CE / 224–310 AH), commonly known as al-Ṭabarī (), was a Sunni Muslim scholar, polymath, historian, exegete, jurist, and theologian from Amol, Tabaristan, present- ...
,
al-Mu'tasim Abū Isḥāq Muḥammad ibn Hārūn al-Rashīd (; October 796 – 5 January 842), better known by his laqab, regnal name al-Muʿtaṣim biʾllāh (, ), was the eighth Abbasid Caliphate, Abbasid caliph, ruling from 833 until his death in 842. ...
's first
vizier A vizier (; ; ) is a high-ranking political advisor or Minister (government), minister in the Near East. The Abbasids, Abbasid caliphs gave the title ''wazir'' to a minister formerly called ''katib'' (secretary), who was at first merely a help ...
,
al-Fadl ibn Marwan Al-Fadl ibn Marwan (; c. 774–864) was a Christian Arab official of the Abbasid Caliphate, who rose to become vizier under Caliph al-Mu'tasim (reigned 833–842). He was the first of a series of Iraqi Christian officials who would come to play a si ...
, upbraided Ibn al-Zayyat for daring to appear at court in ceremonial garb, with the black Abbasid robes ('' durrāʿah'') and girt sword, although he was "only a trader". Al-Fadl also tried to have Dulayl ibn Ya'qub al-Nasrani examine Ibn al-Zayyat's financial activities for irregularities, but Dulayl was lenient and did not confiscate anything from Ibn al-Zayyat. In 836, however, al-Mu'tasim dismissed al-Fadl, and appointed Ibn al-Zayyat in his place. He would continue to hold the vizierate for the remainder of al-Mu'tasim's reign, as well as the reign of
al-Wathiq Abū Jaʿfar Hārūn ibn Muḥammad al-Wathiq bi'Llah (; 18 April 81210 August 847), commonly known by his regnal name al-Wathiq bi'Llah (), was an Abbasid caliph who reigned from 842 until his death in 847. Al-Wathiq is described in the so ...
(r. 842–847), and into the reign of
al-Mutawakkil Ja'far ibn al-Mu'tasim, Muḥammad ibn Harun al-Rashid, Hārūn al-Mutawakkil ʿalā Allāh (); March 82211 December 861, commonly known by his laqab, regnal name al-Mutawwakil ala Allah (), was the tenth Abbasid Caliphate, Abbasid caliph, rul ...
(r. 847–861), who had him executed. As vizier, Ibn al-Zayyat became one of the leading men of the state, and the chief civilian minister alongside the head ''
qādī A qadi (; ) is the magistrate or judge of a Sharia court, who also exercises extrajudicial functions such as mediation, guardianship over orphans and minors, and supervision and auditing of public works. History The term '' was in use from ...
'',
Ahmad ibn Abi Duwad Abu 'Abdallah Ahmad ibn Abi Du'ad al-Iyadi () (776/7–June 854) was an Islamic religious judge (''qadi'') of the mid-ninth century. A proponent of Mu'tazilism, he was appointed as chief judge of the Abbasid Caliphate in 833, and became highly inf ...
, with whom he entertained a fierce personal rivalry. He was responsible for much of the construction work on al-Mu'tasim's new capital,
Samarra Samarra (, ') is a city in Iraq. It stands on the east bank of the Tigris in the Saladin Governorate, north of Baghdad. The modern city of Samarra was founded in 836 by the Abbasid caliph al-Mu'tasim as a new administrative capital and mi ...
. In 840 he was the chief prosecutor in the
show trial A show trial is a public trial in which the guilt (law), guilt or innocence of the defendant has already been determined. The purpose of holding a show trial is to present both accusation and verdict to the public, serving as an example and a d ...
against al-Afshin, prince of
Ushrusana ''Osrušana'' () or ''Ustrushana'' was a former Iranian regionC. Edmund Bosworth (2005), "Osrušana", in ''Encyclopaedia Iranica''. Online Accessed November 201Quote 1: "The region was little urbanized, and it long preserved its ancient Iranian ...
and until then one of the leading military commanders of the regime; al-Afshin was accused, among other things, of being a false Muslim, and of being accorded divine status by his subjects in his native Ushrusana. Despite putting up an able and eloquent defence, al-Afshin was found guilty and thrown into prison. He died soon after, either of starvation or of poison; his body was publicly
gibbet Gibbeting is the use of a gallows-type structure from which the dead or dying bodies of criminals were hanged on public display to deter other existing or potential criminals. Occasionally, the gibbet () was also used as a method of public ex ...
ed in front of the palace gates, burned, and thrown in the Tigris. When al-Mu'tasim died in January 842, the throne passed to his son, al-Wathiq. Real power however lay with al-Mu'tasim's coterie of leading officials, Ibn al-Zayyat, Ibn Abi Duwad, and the
Turkish Turkish may refer to: * Something related to Turkey ** Turkish language *** Turkish alphabet ** Turkish people, a Turkic ethnic group and nation *** Turkish citizen, a citizen of Turkey *** Turkish communities in the former Ottoman Empire * The w ...
generals
Ashinas Abu Ja'far Ashinas (; died 17 or 19 December 844) was a general of the Abbasid caliph Al-Mu'tasim. One of the earliest and most prominent members of al-Mu'tasim's Turkic guard, he rose to become one of the leading figures of the empire under al- ...
,
Itakh Aytākh or Ītākh al-Khazarī () was a leading commander in the Turkic army of the Abbasid caliph al-Mu'tasim (r. 833-842 C.E.). As the '' nisba'' in his name suggests, he was a Khazar by origin, and is said to have been a slave working in the ...
, and Wasif. In 843/4, he is said by some sources to have been responsible for the heavy fines imposed by the Caliph on several of the secretaries in the central government, in an effort to raise money to pay the Turkish troops, and at the same time reduce the power of the leading Turkish commanders, such as Itakh and Ashinas, since most of the secretaries arrested and forced to pay were in their service. In the process, Ibn al-Zayyat became notorious for the severity and cruelty with which he treated the prisoners, torturing them with a device of his own invention, the ''tannur'' ("oven"), a kind of
iron maiden Iron Maiden are an English Heavy metal music, heavy metal band formed in Leyton, East London, in 1975 by bassist and primary songwriter Steve Harris (musician), Steve Harris. Although fluid in the early years of the band, the line-up for most ...
. In 845, he received a
Byzantine The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Having survived the events that caused the fall of the Western Roman E ...
embassy, with whom he negotiated about a
prisoner exchange A prisoner exchange or prisoner swap is a deal between opposing sides in a conflict to release prisoners: prisoner of war, prisoners of war, spy, spies, hostages, etc. Sometimes, cadaver, dead bodies are involved in an exchange. Geneva Conven ...
, which was held in September of the same year under the auspices of Khaqan al-Khadim. Ibn al-Zayyat was also an ardent patron of learning and science, and promoted the translation movement of Greek authors then under way; thus he commissioned
Ishaq ibn Hunayn Abū Yaʿqūb Isḥāq ibn Ḥunayn () (c. 830 Baghdad, – c. 910-1) was an influential Arab physician and translator, known for writing the first biography of physicians in the Arabic language. He is also known for his translations of Euclid's ...
to translate works of
Galen Aelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus (; September 129 – AD), often Anglicization, anglicized as Galen () or Galen of Pergamon, was a Ancient Rome, Roman and Greeks, Greek physician, surgeon, and Philosophy, philosopher. Considered to be one o ...
. Like al-Ma'mun, he was rumoured to be a ''
zindīq Zindīq (pl. zanādiqa) is an Islamic pejorative applied to individuals who are considered to hold views or follow practices that are contrary to central Islamic dogmas.. Zandaqa is the noun describing these views. Zandaqa is usually translated a ...
'', which normally meant "
Manichaean Manichaeism (; in ; ) is an endangered former major world religion currently only practiced in China around Cao'an,R. van den Broek, Wouter J. Hanegraaff ''Gnosis and Hermeticism from Antiquity to Modern Times''. SUNY Press, 1998 p. 37 found ...
", but was also used a shorthand by orthodox
Sunni Sunni Islam is the largest branch of Islam and the largest religious denomination in the world. It holds that Muhammad did not appoint any successor and that his closest companion Abu Bakr () rightfully succeeded him as the caliph of the Mu ...
writers to denounce those with heterodox (pro-
Shi'ite Shia Islam is the second-largest branch of Islam. It holds that Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib () as both his political successor (caliph) and as the spiritual leader of the Muslim community (imam). However, his right is understood to ...
) beliefs. During his ascendancy, he was also the main patron of the theologian
al-Jahiz Abu Uthman Amr ibn Bahr al-Kinani al-Basri (; ), commonly known as al-Jahiz (), was an Arab polymath and author of works of literature (including theory and criticism), theology, zoology, philosophy, grammar, dialectics, rhetoric, philology, lin ...
.


Accession of al-Mutawakkil, downfall and death

When al-Wathiq died unexpectedly in August 847, Ibn al-Zayyat, Ibn Abi Duwad, Wasif, Itakh, and a few other leading officials assembled to determine his successor. Ibn al-Zayyat initially proposed al-Wathiq's son Muhammad (the future
al-Muhtadi Abū Isḥāq Muḥammad ibn Hārūn ibn Muḥammad ibn Hārūn al-Muhtadī bi-ʾLlāh (‎; – 21 June 870), better known by his regnal name al-Muhtadī bi-ʾLlāh (Arabic: , "Guided by God"), was the Caliph of the Abbasid Caliphate from ...
), but due to his youth he was passed over, and instead the council chose another of al-Mu'tasim's sons, the 26-year-old Ja'far, who became the caliph al-Mutawakkil. Unbeknownst to Ibn al-Zayyat and the others, the new Caliph was resolved to destroy the coterie of his father's officials that controlled the state, and furthermore harboured a deep grudge against the vizier for the way he had been mistreated by him in the past. According to al-Tabari, when al-Wathiq had grown angry and suspicious at his brother, al-Mutawakkil had visited the vizier in hopes of persuading him to intercede with the Caliph. Not only had Ibn al-Zayyat kept the Abbasid prince waiting until he finished going through his correspondence, but even mocked him, in the presence of others, for coming to him seeking assistance. Not only that, but when the dejected prince left, Ibn al-Zayyat wrote to the Caliph to complain about his appearance, noting that he was dressed in effeminate fashion, and that his hair was too long. As a result, al-Wathiq had his brother summoned to court. Al-Mutawakkil came in a brand-new court dress, hoping to mollify the Caliph, but instead al-Wathiq ordered that his hair be shorn off, and al-Mutawakkil be struck in the face with it. In later times, al-Mutawakkil confessed that he had never been so distressed by anything in his life than by this public humiliation. Thus, on 22 September 847, he sent Itakh to summon Ibn al-Zayyat as if for an audience. Instead, the vizier was brought to Itakh's residence, where his ceremonial garb—''durrāʿah'', sword, belt, and cap—were removed and he was placed under arrest. His servants were sent home on the pretext that the vizier would stay to drink wine with Itakh, but soon Itakh sent his own servants to the vizier's residence to confiscate his possessions; Itakh's men were reportedly impressed by how poor his furniture and lodgings were. Ibn al-Zayyat appointed al-Abbas ibn Ahmad ibn Rashid, the secretary of Ujayf ibn Anbasah, as his agent to supervise the sale of his estates. After a few days, he was put in fetters and tortured by being kept from sleeping, while another story—frequently retold by later authors as a
morality tale The morality play is a genre of medieval and early Tudor drama. The term is used by scholars of literary and dramatic history to refer to a genre of play texts from the fourteenth through sixteenth centuries that feature personified concepts ( ...
—claimed that he was placed inside the ''tannur'', the same device that he had devised. He died after a few days, and was buried unceremoniously, with his own sons denouncing him as a criminal to save themselves. Itakh himself was arrested and executed in 849, while Ibn Abi Duwad lasted until 851, when he and his son were dismissed, and their estates confiscated. These events marked the end of al-Mu'tasim's "old guard", and the full assumption of power by al-Mutawakkil, who reoriented Abbasid policy towards a traditionalist, orthodox
Sunni Sunni Islam is the largest branch of Islam and the largest religious denomination in the world. It holds that Muhammad did not appoint any successor and that his closest companion Abu Bakr () rightfully succeeded him as the caliph of the Mu ...
position. The historian of the Abbasid vizierate,
Dominique Sourdel Dominique Sourdel (31 January 1921, Pont-Sainte-Maxence – 4 March 2014, Neuilly-sur-Seine) was a French historian who specialized in Medieval Islam. He was professor of the Paris-Sorbonne University Paris-Sorbonne University (also known as ...
, summed up Ibn al-Zayyat's vizierate as "he had tried in vain to restrain the influence of the Turkish leaders, and left behind mainly a reputation for harshness and cruelty".


References


Sources

* * * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Muhammad Ibn Al-Zayyat 847 deaths 9th-century Arab people 9th-century people from the Abbasid Caliphate Viziers of the Abbasid Caliphate 9th-century executions by the Abbasid Caliphate 9th-century merchants Torture victims 9th-century Arabic-language poets 9th-century government officials